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Practical 
Up-To-Date Plumbing 



BY 

GEORGE B. CLOW 



OVER 250 ILLUSTRATIONS 




CHICAGO 
FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO., PUBLISHERS 

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Copyright 1912 

BY 

Frederick J. Drake 
Chicago 



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PREFACE. 



This book is a practical up-to-date work on Sanitary 
Plumbing, comprising useful information on the wip- 
ing and soldering of lead pipe joints and the installa- 
tion of hot and cold water and drainage systems into 
modern residences. Including the gravity-tank sup- 
ply and cylinder and tank system of water heating and 
the pressure-cylinder system of water heating. Con- 
nections for bath tub. Connections for water closet. 
Connections for laundry tubs. Connections for wash- 
bowl or lavatory. A modern bathroom. Bath tubs. 
Lavatories. Closets. Urinals. Laundry tubs. Shower 
bath. Toilet room in office building. Sinks. Faucets. 
Bibb-cocks. Soil-pipe fittings. Drainage fittings. 
Plumber's tool kit, etc., etc. 

THE AUTHOR. 



HOUSE DRAINAGE. 

Tlie fact that plumbing during the past ten 
years has reached a most remarkable stage of de^- 
velopment in the construction of improved sys- 
tems of sewerage, house drains, ventilation and 
fixtures, is due to several causes. 

In the first place, the manufacturers of plumbing 
supplies in their pursuit of commercial supremacy 
have employed a number of sanitary engineers, 
who by experimenting and investigation, have 
perfected systems and fixtures which are a pre- 
ventative against the dangers of sewer gas and 
their subsequent results, such as typhoid, scarlet 
fever, dysentery, etc., coming as they frequently 
do from no apparent cause, as far as modem 
science will pennit. 

Secondly, good and safe plumbing has ceased 
to be a luxury. Its protection against the above 
mentioned diseases, and its safeguard to good 
health, have made it a; necessity. Heretofore 
many earnest, well-meaning persons, not appre- 
ciating the importance of correct drainage and 
plumbing, were inclined to sacrifice this vital fac- 
tor in their buildings, and even to-day the remark 
of some builder is often heard, to the effect that 
the balance of the house has cost so much more 

7 



8 HOUSE DRAINAGE 

than was originally intended, that no more money 
than is absolutely necessary can be expended for 
the plumbing. The knowledge and skill which is 
employed for the construction of the rest of the 
house, should be as carefully applied to the sewer, 
ventilation, bath and toilet rooms, and their fit- 
tings. 

Modern knowledge has taken the place of igno- 
rance and neglect, and the fixtures and systems, 
which wore thought good enough ten years ago, 
are to-day branded as old, on account of their not 
being a proper safeguard against disease. Every 
builder should weigh these facts well, and make 
himself familiar with the dangers arising from 
putting in a poor system, as even the smallest 
leak will cause sickness and often death. 

The first subject to be taken up in the plumbing 
line, is the house drain, which are the pipes which 
carry from the house the liquid and soil refuse. 
The accumulated waste from food, clothing and 
bathing, tends to decay, and must be removed 
promptly and properly, or disease will result. 
The sewer which conveys the matter from the 
dwelling, must be absolutely perfect. In all cases, 
the sewer pipe within the foundation wall, should 
be extra heavy cast-iron pipe, coated inside and 
out with hot asphaltum, and should run through 
the foundation wall, and the connection should be 
made to the vitrified sewer at least ten feet out- 
side of the building wall. The connection be- 



HOUSE DRAINAGE 



tween the iron and vitrified soil pipe should be 
carefully made at X and cemented tight with a 
good grade of Portland cement. A good idea is to 
incase the connection at X in a block of concrete, 
which will prevent the breaking of the joint at 
this point. 

In the drawing Fig. 1 an installation is shown 
which is commonly used by a great many plumb- 



B 





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Fig. 1. 

ers, but which has many disadvantages. The 
trap at A, which is placed in the connecting 
sewer, to prevent the ingress of foul gases, from 
the main sewer, is in a poor location, on account 
of its inaccessibility. The vent opening to the 
fresh-air inlet at B ventilates the house system of 
drain pipes. This vent is often placed between 
the sidewalk and the curb, or in the front yard. 
The vent bonnet is very liable to become loose or 



10 HOUSE DRAINAGE 

broken, which will peiTnit of dirt, stones, and 
sticks falling into the opening- so left, and choke 
the sewer, which necessitates digging down to the 
bottom to clean it out. Another objection to plac- 
ing a vent in a position such as shown, is that 
grass and other vegetation is liable to grow up 
around and into it, thereby destroying its effi- 
ciency. When a main disconnecting trap must 
be located outside of the building and under- 
ground, there should be built a brick manhole 
around it for easy access. The manhole for this 
purpose, should be two feet and five inches in 
diameter at the base, and closed on the top with 
a limestone cover, three inches in thickness, with 
an eighteen-inch diameter round cast-iron lid, 
which should have a one-inch bearing on the stone 
all around. 

The drainage system illustrated in Fig. 2 is a 
very excellent one for a residence. The fittings 
as shown are standard stock articles, and conse- 
quently reduce the cost to a minimum. In the 
ordinar}^ residence, a four-inch pipe is sufficiently 
large enough to carry away all of the sewerage. 
A drainage pipe must not be so large, that the 
ordinary flow of water will fail to float and carry 
away the refuse which ordinarily accompanies 
water. The pipe should be laid to grade, or a 
fall of one foot in forty feet. Care should be ex- 
ercised to allow a large enough opening in the 
wall where the pipes pass through it, and espe- 



HOUSE DEAINAGE 



11 







12 HOUSE DRAINAGE 

»• 

cially over them, to allow for setting of the wall 
without touching the pipes. 

Extra heavy cast iron soil pipe, weighing thir- 
teen pounds to the foot, coated inside and out 
with hot asphaltum, should be used in all cases 
for house drainage. 

At A is shown a double-vent opening running 
trap. By calking a four-inch brass ferrule, with 
a brass-trap screw ferrule, into the hub at C, an 
opening which gives free access tO' the drainage 
system on the sewer end is obtained. Care should 
be taken in making this joint, and a good grade 
of spun oakum should be packed around the fer- 
rule, with an iron yarning tool. The hub should 
then be run full at one pouring with soft molten 
lead, and then thoroughly calked with a blunt 
calking iron, which will make an absolutely air- 
tight joint. Tlie trap-screw cover should be 
screwed tightly into the ferrule with a good plia- 
ble gasket. It is very necessary that this joint be 
hermetically sealed, as the pipe X will constantly 
be loaded with sewer-gas from the main sewer, 
and any defective work at this joint will allow 
the gas to escape into the basement. The vent 
opening at B is to be treated in the same man- 
ner, giving an opening which permits easy access 
to the trap. 

The air vent pipe D is run at an angle of forty- 
five degrees, and the extension E, which is run 
to the surface in this particular instance, is run 



HOUSE DRAINAGE 13 

close to the foundation wall, and the elbow calked 
on the top of the pipe, which prevents a possibil- 
ity of any sticks, stones or other debris getting 
into same and retarding a thorough circulation. 
In order to have this drainage system properly 
vented, the fresh-air inlet pipe should be the same 
size as the drain pipe. Where it is impractical 
or impossible to run this fresh-air vent up close 
to the foundation wall and turn it over as shown, 
it can be run as shown by F, and when placed in 
the yard the inlet pipe can be capped with a regu- 
lar air vent-cap fitting. Care should be taken in 
placing this fresh-air inlet, so that the chances 
of having it knocked off and broken will be as 
small as possible. 

The extension piece in all cases should be long 
enough to permit of the opening in the vent-cap 
being, at least, eight inches above the ground. 
In the drawing the sewer or drain pipe is shown 
above the floor. In cases of this kind rests or 
supports should be provided at an interval of ^ve 
feet, or in other words at every joint, to prevent 
the same from sagging and probably breaking 
the joints. When placed underground the top of 
openings B and C should be on a level with the 
flooring. In case of a shallow sewer in the street, 
the piping can be suspended from the ceiling, 
with a good heavy hanger supported by a joist 
clamp or swivel joint, which will permit tha 



14 



HOUSE DRAINAGE 



hanger being shortened or lengtliened after the 
pipe has been hnng. 



BACKWATER TRAPS. 

Backwater gate valves, are used on house 
drainage systems, where the street sewers are so 
small that excessive rain storms flood the svstem, 

V 7 




Fig. 3. 

and back up into the house drain pipe. The body 
of the valve is of iron, and the gate valve is made 
of fine brass, with planed face to make it water 
and gas-tight. The valve is hung with heavy 
brass hinges, and in action is automatic, by means 
of which the flow of sewer water, gas and refuse 
from the public sewer is prevented from backing 



HOUSE DRAIXAGE 15 

ap into the house drains. The cover on the in- 
spection clean-out is fastened do^n to a gasket 
^ith heavv screws counter-sunk so as to be flusn 
with the top, and which are easily removed for 
inspection and flushing pui^oses. 

The trap is shown in Fig. 3 with an iron exten 
sion man-hole, which extends from the drain in 
the ground to the surface of the cellar floor, ana 
is provided with a water and gas-tight metal 
cover bolted to a gasket, which can be easily re- 
moved, and which prevents disturbijig floors and 




Fig. 4. 



concrete, when there is any necessity of inspect- 
ing the interior. A combination house drain trap 
and back-water trap with vent opening^ and in- 
spection opening or a cleanout opening, is shown 
in Fig. -4. A trap of this type, or. in fact, any 
ti\ap should be set perfectly level with regard to 
the water seal. If the inlet to the trap is tipped 
up, it will not retain enough water to foiTii a 



16 HOUSE DRAINAGE 

water seal, and if the outlet is tipped up, too 
much water will be retained, and will back up 
into the drain pipe. These traps should be placed 
back of the house drain sewer trap and before the 
air-vent opening fitting. These gates should 
never be used instead of a drainage trap, but in 
connection with same. 



DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE. 

The disposal of sewerage in districts where 
there are no public sewers at hand is often a mat- 
ter of difficulty. Formerly, it was believed that 
if a running body of water, river or creek, was 
at hand, into which the sewerage could be emp- 
tied, the question of adequate sewer systems was 
solved. Frequent epidemics of diphtheria and 
scarlet fever, have called forth careful investiga- 
tion, which has proven that the pollution of 
streams contiguous to domestic water supplies 
with sewerage, is one of the greatest dangers to 
health. This subject is being more closely stud- 
ied every year, which is probably due to the wide 
publicity given it in discussions and reports of 
health departments. It is the purpose to con- 
sider some of the best sanitary systems and ap- 
pliances applicable to the convenience and health 
of country districts. A system which is adaptable 
for one place will not prove an adequate or ef- 
fectual system for another. It lies with the plumb- 
er or builder to study the conditions as they exist, 
and to exercise a little common sense. 

The old out-door closet, with its revolting 
stench and inconvenience, is rapidly disappearing. 
Private and public water sei'vice have made it 

17 



18 DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE 

possible to install a modern bath room, even in 
the country, but the sewer disposal in most cases, 
is a puzzling proposition. 

The primitive method of installing a leaching 
cesspool, which is a hole dug in the ground deep 
enough to allow five or six feet of space below the 
inlet end of the house drain pipe, and five or six 
feet wide, walled up with loose stones, the bottom 
left loose and filled with about a foot of small 
stones and the top walled over with a tight arch, 
and the earth filled in to the grade level thereby 
depending on the liquid to ooze away through the 
porous strata, has a great many disadvantages. 
In the first place, in communities where the neigh- 
bors depend on wells for their water supply, it is 
very dangerous, as it invariably pollutes the sub- 
soil in the neighborhood and contaminates the 
well water supply. On a farm where plenty of 
ground is available, if located at a good distance 
from the dwelling, and at a lower level in the op- 
posite direction from the well, it may be used 
without causing any harm. In case such a cess- 
pool is used, the arch should be built up to an 
opening, twenty inches in diameter, and run to 
the surface and closed with an insj3ection cover 
hermetically sealed by a rubber gasket. 

The system of sub-surface irrigation for sewer- 
age disposal has been very well thought of by our 
best sanitary engineers. It consists of two abso- 
lutely tight cesspools or concrete receptables, as 



COUNTRY WATER SUPPLY 



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20 DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE 

shown in Fig. 5, built circular in shape, arched 
over, and with extended manholes to the surface, 
with tight inspection covers, also provided with 
an air-vest opening for the escape of gases, one 
tank to receive the drain from the house and to 
retain the solids and grease. The other for the 
liquid sewerage, connected together with an over- 
flow pipe in such a manner that the first basin is 
drained into the second, without disturbing the 
grease and scum in the top of the first one, with a 
baffle plate, as shown, to prevent an underflow 
current from cariying the solids through to the 
second basin. 

In the drawing an inspection basin is shown 
with the syphon for emptying the liquid outside 
of the second basin. The advantage of this is 
that in case of the syphon failing to work prop- 
erly, it is accessible without disturbing the other 
two tanlvS. Another very frequent construction, 
which, of course, avoids the expense of the inspec- 
tion basin, is to place the syphon in the second 
tank and protect it with a wire screen. The ad- 
vantage of having the inspection basin, of course, 
is obvious, and hardly needs to be further com- 
mented upon here. The opening from the syphon 
is run with a four or six-inch vitrified salt glazed 
sewer pipe with tightly cemented joints, to a point 
down gTade, where it is connected with four by 
two inch Y branches to a series of two or three- 
inch porous drain tile, which should be laid in a 



DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE 21 

trench about ten inches deep, never deeper, on 
boards, with a very small fall about three or four 
inches per hundred feet, tiles to be laid with 
open joints, and joints to be covered with a half 
ring of vitrified clay or cup, to protect the same 
from filling up when buried. The liquid tank can 
be emptied in several ways, either with a sluice 
valve or a gate valve, both of which necessitates 
personal attention. The advantage of using the 
syphon is that it is automatic. 

There are a great many different kinds of sy- 
phons on the market, and it is sometimes a matter 
of personal opinion as to which is the best. The 
liquid tank should not be emptied more often 
than once every twenty-four hours, which allows 
plenty of time for the ground to thoroughly drain, 
and to breathe in more oxygen, and then in a vol- 
ume sufficiently large enough to fill all the drain 
pipes at once, to insure an even distribution. This 
system is, of course, preferably adapted to a 
porous or gravel soil. In places where clay soil 
conditions exist, the soil should be drained at 
least four feet below the level with porous drain. 



COUNTRY WATER SUPPLY. 

The procuring of a water supply in the country 
depends largely upon the surrounding conditions. 
Of course, when the source of the water supply 
is at a higher level than the house, a gravity sys- 
tem is the least complicated, and very often the 
cheapest. When the house is located at a reason- 
able height above the water supply, which could 
be made to supply an eight or ten-foot head, the 
hydraulic ram could be used. Rams will work, 
and work successfully, where the spring or brook 
is only three feet higher than the ram head, as 
the height or head increases the more powerfully 
the ram operates, and its ability to force water to 
a greater elevation and distance correspondingly 
strengthens. The best wearing results will be se- 
cured where the head or fall does not exceed ten 
feet; the head on the discharge pipe may be from 
five to ten times the head on the drive pipe. As a 
specific example: It might be said a fall of ten feet 
from brook or spring to the ram is sufficient to 
raise water to any point, say 150 feet above the 
machine, while the same amount of fall would also 
raise water to a point considerably higher, though 
the quantity of water discharged will be propor- 
tionately diminished as the height and distance 

increase. 

22 



COUNTRY WATER SUPPLY 23 

Rule for Estimating Delivery of Water. Multi- 
ply the number of gallons suj^plied to the ram 
per minute by three, and this product by the 
number of feet in head or fall of drive pipe, and 
divide by four times the number of feet to be 
raised. The result is the number of gallons raised 
per minute. Example: With a supply of ten gal- 
lons per minute delivered to a ram under a head 
or fall of ten feet, how much water can be raised 
to an elevation of 100 feet? 

10 X 3 X 10 

— .75 gallons per minute. 

100 X 4 

To obtain a water supply w^hich will deliver 
water at any faucet in a house, yard or barn, it is 
necessary not only to pump the water, but to 
have some means of storing it under pressure. 
The elevated tank delivers it by gravity pressure, 
and, when used, should be placed at least eight 
to ten feet above the highest point from which 
the water is to be drawn, to insure a respectable 
velocity of discharge. 

Compressed Air System. The principle of de- 
livering water and other liquids by pressure of 
compressed air is very old, but it was not until 
recently that this principle was employed to fur- 
nish domestic water supply. 

One of the greatest advantages of the com- 



24 COUNTRY WATER SUPPLY 

pressed air system is that it does away with the 
elevated tank, and there are a great many defects 
in the elevated tank system. If placed in the at- 
tic, it is not high enough to afford a sufficient 
pressure to be any protection against fire. An- 
other objection is the weight of the tank, when 
filled with water, is very liable to crack the plas- 
tering and to leak. Another serious defect of the 
elevated tank, when placed in an attic or on a 
tower is the exposure to weather, in the winter 
it freezes and in the summer it becomes warm. 

In the compressed air system the tank is placed 
either in the ground below the frost line or in the 
basement, and the water is pumped into the bot- 
tom of the tank with a force pump, which may be 
operated by hand, windmill, gas engine or hot- 
air engine. Another opening in the bottom de- 
livers water to the faucet in the house, yard or 
barn. As the water is pumped into the bottom 
of the tank the air above it, not having an outlet, 
is compressed. This pressure is increased and 
maintained by an automatic air valve. It does 
away with the elevated tank, and delivers water 
at an even temperature all year around. The 
tank and pipes leading to and from it are protect- 
ed from the weather. A pressure of fifty pounds 
is easily obtained, which equals the pressure from 
an elevated tank one hundred and ten feet high. 
This affords first-class fire protection and enables 
the country residents to have all the sanitary con- 



COUNTRY WATER SUPPLY 25 

veniences of a city home. A double system of 
this kind can also be installed, one for furnishing 
well or drinking water to the fixtures, and an- 
other one supplying soft water from the cistern. 

In Fig. 6 a steel storage tank is shown buried 
in the ground below the frost line, water is 
pumped into it by hand or windmill. This pump 
forces both air and water into the tank at the 
same time. A connection run to the surface near 
the house to a yard hydrant with hose connec- 
tion furnishes water for sprinkling and fire pro- 
tecition, another branch supplies water to the 
barn, under pressure. 

In Fig. 7 a steel storage tank is shown placed 
M the basement and supplied with a hand pump. 
These two illustrations will serve to give some 
idea of the extent to which a system of this kind 
can be put to use. The tank is practically inde- 
structible, and, unlike the elevated tank, requires 
no expense after it has been put in. When the 
tank is one-half full of water, the air which origi- 
nally filled the entire tank will be compressed 
into the upper half of it and will exert a pressure 
of fifteen pounds to the square inch, and if a 
straight supply pipe was run from the bottom of 
the tank, this air pressure would force the water 
to a height of thirty-three feet. For ordinary 
elevation the best results are obtained by main- 
taining in the tank excess air pressure of ten 
pounds, that is, enough air to give ten pounds 



26 



COUNTRY WATER SUPPIiY 




COUNTRY WATER SUPPLY 



27 







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28 COUNTRY WATER SUPPLY 

pressure when the tank contains no water. Thus 
equipped, a tank will deliver twice as much water 
as otherwise. 

Most of the country towns at the present day 
are supplied with efficient water systems, and it is 
a very easy matter to install a hydraulic system 
which supplies hot and cold soft water to every 
fixture in the house automatically and all of the 
time. One of the principal objects desired in the 
hydraulic system is to utilize the waste water 
from the hydraulic pump so that there will be 
no loss, which is quite an item when the water 
is paid for at so much per thousand feet. 

The system shown in Fig. 8 is a very simple 
and inexpensive one. Tlie city water supply is 
run direct to the hydraulic pump, and the city 
water passing through it is piped direct to the 
fixtures at which cold hard water is desired. In 
the drawing this pipe sux^plies the closet tank and 
one faucet over the lavatory for drinking purposes 
in the bathroom, also one faucet over the sink 
and two connections to laundry tub, which is very 
convenient, as the cold water can be utilized for 
rinsing purposes, thereby saving a great deal of 
the soft water. The operation of the same is, that 
when any of these five faucets are opened, it per- 
mits the city water to pass through the pump and 
at the same time operate the pump, which pumps 
soft water from the cistern to the tank in the 
attic from which a pipe is run down to the base- 



COUNTRY WATER SUPPLY 29 

ment witli branches taken off at the different 
floors to supply cold soft water, hence, to the hot 
water heater tank, from there on to the heater, 
back to the tank and around to the different fix- 
tures supplying hot soft water. The return pipe 
prevents a dead end which necessitates wasting 
the soft water before the hot water begins to flow. 

A method is shown whereby it is possible when 
the cistern is emptied to fill either the city water 
supply only with city water, or the entire system 
without its passing through the pump by the ma- 
nipulation of three globe valves, designated as A, 
B and C. When the pump is pumping cistern 
water to the attic tank, valve B and C are closed, 
and valve A is opened. When the cistern is emp^ 
tied, and it is desired to fill only the cold city 
water pipe with water, leave valve C closed, close 
valve A and open valve B, which permits the 
water to flow into the cold water pipe without 
passing through the pump. If it is desired to fill 
the entire system with city water, all that is neces- 
sary is to open valve C, which permits the water 
to flow up to the attic tank and down through 
the balance of the system. When this is done, 
valve I) on the overflow pipe should be closed af- 
ter the water begins to overflow, and not before, 
as the system would become air-bound. 

An overflow pipe is shown leading from the at- 
tic tank to the cistern within the house. If it is 
possible to run this overflow pipe out onto the 



30 COUNTEY WATER SUPPLY 

roof so that the overflow will return to the cistern 
through the eavestrough and downspout pipe to 
the cistern, it is best to do so, as the cistern water 
then has a chance to become aerated. Tlie pipe to 
supply the sill cock or yard hydrant for sprink- 
ling purposes should be taken off at a point before 
the supply to pump, to prevent the unnecessary 
work of the pump when sprinking. In case of a 
basement closet being installed, a connection can 
be taken from the city water supply pipe run to 
the laundr}^ tub, three-quarter-inch galvanized 
iron pipe is sufficiently large enough for all of 
the main supply pipes with one-half-inch branches 
to the different fixtures. These hydraulic rams 
are manufactured so as to work, and work suc- 
cessfully, at as low a pressure as ten pounds per 
square inch. 





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CELLAR OR BASEMENT DRAINS. 

Floor drains, when used in cellar or basemenio 
should be connected to the leader side of a rain 
leader trap wherever it is possible. Some sanitaiy 
engineers go so far as to say that floor drains 
should never be used, their objection to them be- 
ing that the floor is not washed often enough to 
furnish sufficient water to maintain a water seal 
at all times against sewer gas ingress, and their 
argument is well taken, but floor drains in a base- 
ment are Yery convenient, and should be part of 
a well-installed sanitary sewer system. 

In case of a seepage of water through the foun- 
dation walls, during a rainy period, it is well to 
be provided with some means to carry the water 
away quickly, without having to resort to the 
laborious practice of pumping. 

The evils of a floor drain are not so much due 
to their inefficiency^ as they are to the care taken 
of them. The cemented floor basement of the 
modern home today is just as important to be 
kept clean as the bathroom, and the thorough 
housekeeper takes just as much pride in it, and 
realizes the necessity for having it so from a sani- 
tary standpoint. 

The old method of installing a floor drain or 

31 



32 



CELLAR OR BASEMENT DRAINS 



floor outlet wliicli consisted of placing a running 
trap in the line of drain pipe to the catch-basin, 
and running a piece of pipe to the floor level and 
simply closing the opening with a bar strainer 
grate is wrong. The grate, even when cemented 
into the hub end of the pipe, will in time become 
loc'sened, and dirt and other rubbish will soon 
clog up the trap and render it useless. 




Fig. 9. 



As before said, the great objection to a base- 
ment floor drain in the ordinary house, is that 
there is seldom sufficient water used on the base- 
ment floor, to maintain a perfect water seal in the 
trap. To neglect to see that the floor drain trap 
is not always filled with water and to argue 
against its installation on that point is wrong. 

Floor drains should never be used without a 
back-water valve, which will prevent sewer water 
from backing up into the basement. A number 



CEiLLAR OR BASEMENT DRAINS 33 

of different styles of floor drains are shown, which 
are built on the proper lines. The one shown in 
Fig. 9 is a combination floor drain and back-water 
gate valve. This accessible cleanout cellar drain 
flushing cesspool and back-water gate trap valve 
combination has much to be commended. It has 
a hinged strainer, through which seeping and 
floor waste water flnds a direct outlet to the trap 
and sewer. The trap has a deep water seal, which 
is always desirable, and is always provided with 
a brass back-water gate valve or flap-valve which 
will not rust and which will close and hold tight 
against a back flow from the sewer. It also has 
a tapped opening to which a water supply pipe 
can be attached, and by means of a valve being 
placed on the pipe at some convenient point, the 
drain trap can be throroughly flushed and cleansed 
by simply opening the valve for a few minutes 
at a time. 

Another method oftentimes used to provide for 
a floor outlet to sewer is to run a piece of iron soil 
pipe from the trap on the sewer to the floor level, 
and to caulk into the hub of the pipe a brass fer- 
rule or thimble with a brass screwed cover, which 
is screwed down tight against a rubber gasket, as 
shown in Fig. 10. An outlet of this character is 
only opened when occasion demands, by unscrew- 
ing and removing the cover until its need is past. 

In Fig. 11 is shown an extra heavy cesspool 
suitable for barns, carriage room and places of 



34 CELLAR OR BASEMENT DRAINS 




Fig. 10. 




Fig. 11. 



CELLAR OR BASEMENT DRAINS 35 

like nature. Tlie top is sixteen inches square, 
the body ten inches deep and has a four-inch out- 
let, suitable for caulking into the hub of a four- 
inch iron sewer pipe. The top cover or grating 
is heavy enough to permit of horses, wagons and 
carriages passing over it. The second grating or 
strainer is of finer mesh, which catches any ob- 
stacles which might clog up the sewer, it can be 
lifted out by the knob and easily cleaned at any 
time. The deep water seal in this trap is one of 
its good features, the bell or hood not only serves 
to maintain a water seal, but where used in stables 
is a shield over the outlet to prevent oats or grain 
of any description which might fall through the 
second strainer from getting into the sewer. 

Care should be taken to prevent the bottom of 
the cesspool from filling up with fine strainings. 

Fig. 12 is a combination floor strainer and back- 
water seal and is used in the hub of a sewer pipe 
which extends down to the trap placed in the 
sewer run. The rubber ball prevents the flooding 
of the basement from backing up of water, by be- 
ing floated to seat above. 

In Fig. 13 is shown a floor drain and trap, de- 
signed especially for hospital operating rooms 
and other places where it is desirable not only to 
cleanse thoroughly the floor, but also to remove 
all sediment from the trap itself for obvious sani- 
tary reasons. The trap is of cast iron, and is 
enamelled inside. This gives it an impervious 



36 



CELLAR OR BASEMENT DRAINS 




CELLAR OR BASEMENT DRAINS 37 

and smooth surface and prevents the trap from 
becoming coated and slimy. This trap is provided 
with heavy brass cast flushing rim and has a brass 
removable strainer. 

In the sectional view is shown the method by 
which the water supply is connected to both the 
rim and trap, by means of which not only every 
portion of the body may be cleansed, but also' all 
sediment removed from the jet inlet at the bottom. 

The trap is built especially to maintain a deep 
seal and is three inches in diameter. 



TRAPS. 

A trap is a device or fitting used to allow the 
free passage through it of liquids and solids, and 
still prevent the passage of air or gas in either 
direction. There are two kinds of traps used on 
plumbing fixtures known as syphon traps and 
anti-syphon traps. The simplest trap is the sy- 
phon trap — a horizontal pipe bent as shown in 




Fig. 14. 

Fig. 14. This forms a pocket which will retain 
enough liquid to prevent air or gas from passing. 
The dip or loop is called the seal, and should 
never be less than one and one-half inches. This 
type of trap is what is known as a running-trap. 
This is not a good trap to use, and it is only capa- 
ble of withstanding a very low back pressure. 

38 



TRAPS 



39 



Tlie trap most generally used is what is known 
as the S trap, as shown in Fig 15. When this trap 
is subjected to a back-pressure, the water backs 
up into the vertical pipe, and naturally will with- 
stand a greater pressure than the running-trap 
type— about twice as much. 




Fig. 15. 



The trap shown in Fig 16 is what is known as 
a P trap, and in Fig 17 as three-quarter S trap, 
and has the same resisting power as the S trap. 

A trap may lose its seal either by evaporation, 
self-syphonage or by suction. There is no danger 



40 



TRAPS 



of a trap losing its seal in an occupied house 
from evaporation, as it would take a number of 
week's time, under ordinary conditions, to evapo- 
rate enough water to destroy the seal. 




Fig, 17. 



TRAPS 



41 



A trap can be syphoned when connected to an 
iinvented stack, and then only when the waste 
pipe from the trap to the stack extends below the 
dip, so as to fonn the long leg of the syphon as 
in Fig. 18. 




AsAv«s.U^^!vSt; 



Fig. 18. 



42 TRAPS 

When two fixtures are installed one above the 
other, with unvented traps and empty into one 
stack, the lower trap can be syphoned by aspira- 
tion. The water emptying into the stack at the 
higher point in passing to the trap inlet of the 
lower fixture, creates a partial vacuum which 
sucks the water out of the trap at the lower point. 
To prevent this, what is known as back-venting 
is resorted to, back-venting not only protects the 
trap against syphonage, but relieves the seal from 
back-pressure, by equalizing the pressure on both 
sides of the seal. All revent pipes must be con- 
nected to vent pipes at such a point that the vent 
opening will be above the level of the water in 
the trap. 

In Fig. 19 two basins are shown connected to 
soil pipe with S traps and back— vented into the 
air-vent pipe, both connecting into the attic into 
an increaser, which projects through the roof. 
This drawing is given to illustrate the proper 
back-venting to prevent syphonage of basin traps, 
and when it is necessary to run separate stacks 
for wash basins, such as are sometimes installed 
in bedrooms, the main waste stack must be twO' 
inches in diameter and the vent pipe one and one- 
half inches, either cast iron or galvanized wrought 
iron. 

Non-syphon traps are those in which the seal 
cannot be broken under any reasonable condi- 
tions. Some water can be syphoned from the best 



TRAPS 



43 



of non-sj^phon traps made, but not enough to de 
stroy their seal. The commonest non-syphoning 




Fig. 19. 



u 



TRAPS 



trap is known as a drum trap, which is four inches 
in diameter and ten inches deep. Sufficient water 
always remains in this trap to maintain its seal, 
even when subjected to the severest of tests. 

Fig. 20 shows a trap, which is the type general- 
ly used to trap the bathtub. This trap is provided 




with a brass trap-screw top for clean-out pur- 
poses, made gas and water tight against a rubber 
gasket. A trap of this kind would not be suitable 
for a lavator}^, its principal fault being that owing 
to the enlarged body they are not self-cleaning, 
affording a lodging place for the depositing of 
sediment. 



TRAPS 



45 



The non-syphon trap to be used is one in which 
the action of the water is rotary, as it thoroughly 
scours the trap and keeps it clean, such as is 
shown in Fig. 21. This trap depends upon an 
inner partition to effect this rotary movement, 
and is so constructed that its seal cannot be brok- 
en by syphonic action and is permitted by health 





Fig. 21. 



Fig. 23. 



and sanitary departments, where it is impossible 
to run a separate vent pipe to the roof. 

One of the oldest traps is the Cudell trap, as 
shown in Fig. 22. The rubber ball being of slight- 
ly greater specific gravity than water rests on the 
seat and forms a seal when the water is not flow- 
ing through the trap. This ball prevents the seal 



46 



TRAPS 



of the trap being forced by back-pressure, and 
acts as a check against back flow of sewerage 
should drain stop up, and provides a seal if water 
is evaporated. 

Fig. 23 shows the old Bower trap. The water 
seal is maintained by the inlet leg, extending 




Fig. 22. 



down into the body below the outlet. The bot- 
tom of this trap is glass, brass or lead, which- 
ever is desired, and can be unscrewed from trap 
and thoroughly cleaned. 



HOT WATER SUPPLY. 

Cylinder System. In the cylinder system the 
principal difference from the tank system lies in 
the fact that the cylinder or reservoir of hot water 
lies beneath the draw-off pipes and not above 
them, as with the tank system. This being the 
case it is impossible to empty the reservoir un- 
knowingly or accidentally, should the cold water 
supply be shut off. 

Eeferring to Fig. 24, the flow-pipe proceeds 
from the extreme top of the waterback, and does 
not project through inside the waterback in the 
least degree. If it cannot be taken from the top, 
it must be connected to the side or back of the 
waterback as close to the top as it can be got, but 
the top connection should always be used if in any 
way possible. From the waterback the flow-pipe 
proceeds to the boiler and terminates five-eighths 
of the way up from the bottom. Tlie pipe can 
enter the side of the boiler at the correct point, 
or it can come through lower down and be ex- 
tended up inside with a bend and short piece of 
pipe together without making two holes. 

The return pipe leaves the side of the boiler as 
close to the bottom as possible, or it can come 
from the bottom if desired. It then proceeds to 

47 



48 



HOT WATER SUPPLY 



the waterback and enters eitlier through the top 
or the side, terminating half-way down with a 
saddle boiler. Both of these pipes, the flow and 
the return, must have a rise from the waterback 
to the boiler of not less than 1 inch in 10 feet. 




Fig. 24. 



From the top of the boiler is carried the ex- 
pansion pipe. This also should rise 1 inch in 10 
feet from the boiler to its highest point. The 



HOT WATER SUPPLY 49 

highest point can be above the cold-water cistern 
or through the roof. 

The cold water supply to the system is a pipe 
direct from a cistern, as shown. This pipe must 
not be branched for any other purpose. 

It is of the highest importance that the cold 
water suj)ply pipe should be of full size, and not 
choked or reduced in bore anywhere. The out- 
flow at the hot water faucet is exactly in ratio 
with the down-flow of water through this pipe, 
less friction, therefore everything possible must 
be done to give the water full and free passage 
and lessen the friction. This is done by having 
the pipe of good size, using bends and not elbows, 
or lead pipe, and seeing that the stop-cock, if there 
be one, has a straight full way through it. The 
stop-cock should be put near the boiler, so that 
the man who cleans the waterback, or effects re- 
pairs, does not have to traverse the house to shut 
the water off and afterwards to turn it on. A tee 
should be put on the cold water supply connec- 
tion, inside the boiler to spread the inflowing cold 
water over the bottom of the boiler. If this Is not 
done the inflowing cold water will bore its way 
up through the hot water above, unless the pres- 
sure be quite low. 

An emptying cock should be put somewhere be- 
neath the boiler, but this cock must be provided 
with a loose key, so that only an authorised per- 
son can withdraw the water from the boiler. 



50 HOT WATER SUPPLY 

The draw-off pipes are all taken from the 
expansion pipe as shown. This pipe should there- 
fore be carried up by the best route to touch at 
the points where the faucets are, otherwise long 
single branches must be run. The expansion pipe, 
being a single tube, has no active or useful circu- 
lation in it. 

It must never be forgotten that, on opening a 
faucet, on a secondary circulation, water will pro- 
ceed from both directions to reach that faucet. 
The circulatory movements all cease, and quite a 
new action takes place. Water will come up from 
the top of the boiler and this will be hot. There 
will also be water coming up the secondary re- 
turn, and the temperature of this will depend on 
whence it comes. If connected as shown in Fig. 
25 then whatever water comes to the faucets will 
be hot, all there is of it, and when the temperature 
of the issuing water falls it may be known that 
the hottest has all been withdrawn. There have 
been several points at which the secondary re- 
turn has been connected with bad results, notably 
at the bottom of the boiler, into the primary re- 
turn (between the boiler and waterback), into the 
boiler, and even into the cold supply pipe just be- 
neath the boiler. These are wrong, and only 
one position is correct, as shown in Fig. 25. The 
point is from 3 inches to 6 inches from the top of 
the boiler according to its size. The latter would 



HOT WATER SUPPLY 



51 



be for a 100-gallon boiler. A 50-gallon size would 
have the connection 4 inches from the top. 

Tank System. The usual arrangement of this 
system of water heating apparatus is illustrated 



crrl 



± 



Z 



7 



W 



^ 



Fig. 25. 



i 



52 



HOT WATER SUPPLY 



in Fig. 26. The flow pipe should proceed from 
the extreme top or highest point of the water- 
back, preferably from the top plate, and not pro- 
ject through to the inside of the waterback in 
the least degree. If it is impossible to connect 



f?s=7 



»ir 



^t 7 



r" 



7 



f 



illillHI' l 



—11 



ig. 26. 



the flow pipe in the top plate of the waterback 
it should be located in the side or back, but as 
close to the top as possible. From the waterback 
the flow pipe should proceed to the tank and ter- 



HOT WATER SUPPLY 53 

minate in it about three-fourths of the way up, 
that is one-quarter of the height of the tank from 
the top. It may pass through the bottom and 
reach up inside as a stand pipe as shown in Fig. 
26, or it may enter the side at the required 
height. 

The return pipe should leave the bottom of the 
tank, being connected directly in the bottom or 
in the side of the tank near the bottom. It should 
never be more than an inch from the bottom. 
From the tank the return pipe should proceed 
directly to the waterback, and if entering the 
boiler through the top, should extend down- 
wards, three^fourths the height of the waterback. 

The draw-off pipes are taken from the flow pipe 
as shown. It therefore follows that the flow pipe 
should be carried in a direction which will bring 
it as near to all the faucets as possible. Instead 
of this, the most common practice appears to be 
to carry the circulating pipes by the most direct 
route from the waterback to the tank, and to con- 
sider the running of the branch pipes afterwards. 
There is no objection to the return pipe taking 
the shortest route, but the flow should be diverted 
to pass the work as near as possible. Failing this, 
there would have to be long single-pipe branches, 
and the fault of these is that so much cold water 
has to be drawn before the hot issues. This is not 
so much a fault at a bath, at which some cold 
water will probably be needed. At a lavatory 



54 



PIOT WATER SUPPLY 



basin, however, the fault is very pronounced, the 
faucets being small and slow-running, and at no 
point is the quick arrival of warm water appre- 
ciated more than at this one. 




Fig. 27. 



Cylinder-Tank System. This is simply a com- 
bination of the two systems previously described. 



HOT WATER SUPPLY 



55 



The tank system and the cylinder system both 
have good features which are retained in the cyl- 
inder-tank system, and also certain bad features 
which are eliminated in the combination system 




Fig. 28. 



which may be here described briefly, the tank sys- 
tem ensures a good flow of water from the high 
faucets, while the cylinder system commonly has 



56 HOT WATER SUPPLY 

a very unsatisfactory issue of water from any fau- 
c-ets that are near the top of the house. On the 
other hand, the cylinder system is safest where 
the cold water supply is at all uncertain, as the 
cylinder— the resen/oir of the apparatus— cannot 
be emptied. The object of the cylinder-tank sys- 
tem is therefore to ensure a good outflow at all 
taps by having a store of hot water above them, 
and to have a store of water which cannot be 
exhausted unknowingly if the cold water supply 
fails. 

Fig. 27 illustrates this system of appartus in 
outline, and the parts need no' general description 
more than that given already. As to the sizes of 
the tank and cylinder, the best practice for gen- 
eral requirements is to make them of equal capa- 
city, and the two together should be no larger 
than one would be if alone. Thus, if a 50-galion 
boiler would be the suitable size for a job erected 
on the ordinary cylinder system, then with the 
combined apparatus the boiler should be 25 gal- 
lons and the tank 25. In the cylinder-tank sys- 
tem illustrated in Fig. 27, the cold water supply 
is delivered into the tank directly from the cis- 
tern, while in the system shown in Fig. 28, the 
cold water supply is carried down to the cylinder. 



HOT WATER PLUMBING. 

As the drawings shown in the article on Hot 
Water Supply are merely diagramatic outlines of 
the different systems and are only intended to il- 
lustrate the principle of the circulation, which is 
involved in the heating of water for domestic use, 
further description and additional drawings are 
here given to illustrate the two systems of water 
heating in common use, viz. : the pressure-cylinder 
system and the gravity-supply tank and cylinder 
system. 

In Fig. 29 is shown one of the simplest ar- 
rangements of the pressure-cylinder system for 
the successful heating of water for household use. 
The boiler, water-back and pipe connections are 
all plainly shown. Tn the boiler is a pipe extend- 
ing down from the top and connected with the 
cold water supply, which it discharges in the 
boiler a short distance from the bottom. The dis- 
tance down in the boiler which this pipe should 
extend depends upon -the height that the pipe 
from the upper part of the water-back enters the 
boiler. The cold water supply should always en- 
ter the boiler at a considerable distance below 
the point of entrance of the pipe conveying the 
hot water from the water-back to the boiler. 

57 



58 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



The greater the distance that the hot and cold 
water pipes are apart in the boiler, the better will 
be the circulation and the less time it will take 
to heat a given amount of water. 




The piping in the arrangement shown in Fig. 
29 is designed to deliver hot water on the floor 
above that on which the boiler is located. If hot 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



59 



JLJL 



\i 





Fig. 30. 



60 HOT WATER PLUMBING 

water is desired on the same floor a connection 
can be made in the pipe leading from the top of 
the boiler to the faucet on the floor above. 

Fig. 30 shows an arrangement of fixtures and 
piping to supply hot water on three floors by the 
pressure-cylinder system. Hot water is supplied to 
the kitchen sink on the ground floor, to a bath 
tub and wash bowl on the second floor and to a 
wash bowl on the third floor. The cold water 
supply pipe to the boiler is shown and the cold 
water connection to the kitchen sink, while the 
cold water pipes to the bath tub and wash bowls 
on the upper floors are omitted for the sake of 
simplicity. 

Fig. 31 shows one of the simplest forms of the 
gravity-supply tank and cylinder systems, in 
which the boiler, water-back and hot water con- 
nections are all on the same floor. The cold water 
pipe goes to the floor above or to the attic as the 
case may be to the supply tank, where the supply 
of water is regulated by a ball float cock. An 
expansion pipe as shown should be provided in 
the hot water pipe leading from the boiler and ar- 
ranged to discharge into the supply tank. In Fig. 
32 a gravity-supply tank and cylinder system is 
shown, which is arranged to deliver hot water to 
the kitchen sink and also to a bath tub and wash 
bowl on the floor above. The cold water pipe is 
shown running up to the supply tank and also to 
the kitchen sink. For the sake of clearness and 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



61 



to avoid confusion the cold water pipes leading 
to the wash bowl and bath tub are omitted. 

It must be remembered that the kitchen boiler 
is not a heater, it is simply a reservoir to keep a 






/;CrtO^ 



<> 



<:> 



W 




Fig. 31. 



supply of hot water on hand so that it may be 
drawn when required. By this arrangement hot 
water may be had long after the fire has been ex- 



62 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



tinguislied in tlie stove, as it stores itself by the 
law of gravitation at the upper part of the boiler, 
and is forced out by cold water entering below 
and remaining there without mingling with or 



L 



X&^ 



(F^ 



/ > — — 



\u 



] 



rr 



A_l. 




^ 



] 



L 



Fig. 32. 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 63 

cooling the hot water in the upper part of the 
boiler. It should be understood that the natural 
course of hot water, when confined in a. boiler and 
depending for its motion on the difference be- 
tween its temperature and the temperature of oth- 
er water in the same boiler, is in a perpendicular 
or vertical direction. And consequently when 
the heating apparatus or pipes which have to 
convey the hot water from the water back to a 
boiler in which the hot water is to be stored in 
any position other than in a vertical position, 
friction is added which retards the flow of hot 
water just in proportion to the degree of angle 
from the vertical of the hot water pipes. 

A noise in the pipes and water-back, and also 
a rumbling noise in the boiler indicates that 
there is something wrong, and which requires 
attention. These noises are produced by differ- 
ent causes, sometimes on account of the way the 
upper pipe from the water-back in the stove is 
connected to the boiler. 

This pipe should always have some elevation 
from the water-back to where it enters the boiler. 
The more elevation the better the water will cir- 
culate. But the slightest rise in this pipe will 
make a satisfactory job. It should be a continu- 
ous rise if possible, the entire length from the 
water-back to the boiler. 

Another cause of this noise comes from the 
water-back being filled, or nearly so, with scale. 



64 HOT WATER PI^UMBING 

which partly stops the water from circulating. 
Nearly all the troubles of this kind come from 
a had circulation of water between the stove 
and boiler. If the trouble is allowed to continue 
very long without doing anything to improve it, 
it will gTow worse, and perhaps stop up entirely. 
With the connections between the water-back in 
the stove and the boiler stopped up, what is to 
be expected? With a good fire in the stove un- 
der these conditions, an explosion of the water- 
back, which may blow the stove to pieces and, 
perhaps, kill some of the occupants of the house. 

There are two conditions of things that will 
cause the water-back in a stove to explode. First, 
to have water in the water-back with its outlets 
or pipe connections stopped up, then have a fire 
started in the stove. The fire will generate steam 
in the water-back, and, having no outlet through 
which the steam might escape, an explosion must 
take place. The second way through which the 
water-back could explode is to have no w.^ter 
in the kitchen boiler, with a good fire m the 
stove and the water-back red-hot, then allow the 
water to be turned on suddenly into the boiler 
and water-back. Under these conditions steam 
would be generated faster than it could escape 
through the small pipe connections, and would 
naturally result in an explosion. 

The different ways of connecting a water-back 
on any water heating device to an ordinary* 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



65 



kitchen boiler, are governed, to some extent, by 
the conditions in each individual case. 



Hot water 

OUTLEJ. 







Drain- 




Fig. 33. 



In connecting a gas-heated water device, the 
connections should be made as shown in Fig. 



66 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



83, which is known as a top connection, the 
particular reason being that it is possible, with 
a connection of this kind, to heat small quanti- 




Fig. 34. 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



67 



ties of water and to heat it quickly, and water 
can be drawn within i^ve minutes after lighting 
the gas the great advantage being the economy of 
fuel and time. A gas-heated water device should 
always be connected to a flue. 




When connecting a kitchen boiler to a water- 
back in a range, the connection should be made 
as shown in Fig. 34. As the range fire will 



68 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



probably be kept burning all day, the question of 
fuel economy is not to be considered — the ad- 
vantage of a connection of this kind is that it 
gives a large body of water from which to draw 
at all times. 




Fig. 36. 



Connections to vertical and horizontal boilers, 
when connected to independent water heaters 
are shown in Figs. 35 and 36. 

Another device recently put on the market and 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



69 




r 





Fig. 37. 



70 HOT WATER PLUIMBING 

shown in Fig. 37, is a coinbination reservoir and 
heater. This heater is nniqiie in construction of 
water compartments inasmuch as all surfaces 
are exposed very ad\'antag'eously to the flame. 
The central water comjiartment being directly 
over the flame and the pipe which carries hot 
water to the top of the tank enables it to supply 
hot water within a. very short time. The gas 
supply is regulated by a thermostat, which auto- 
maticallv decreases the flow of 2:as when water 
is heated and automatically increases the flow of 
gas as soon as the hot water is drawn from the 
tank. Two clusters of blue flame gas burners, 
which are independent of each other, and can be 
used separately or both at the same time, fur- 
nish the heating medium. The advantage of 
this boiler, outside of the economy of fuel con- 
sumption, is that it requires little space for the 
installation and a great saving in the piping. 
Again the automatic gas regulating feature pre- 
vents the boiler from becoming over-heated and 
from its subsequent dangers, as the temperature 
of water is maintained at about 170 degrees Fah- 
renheit. 

In the sectional cut a steam coil is shown 
whereby the water can be heated with steam, in 
case it is installed, where steam is available. 

Plumber's Tools. The illustrations given in 
Figs. 38, 39 and 40, show a set of plumber's 
tools. The name of the tool is given with each 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



71 



Blow Pipe 



Round Ironr 




Pot Hook 

^ 



Copper Hatchet Bolt 



Copper Pointed Bolt- 



Solder Pot 



Ladle 



ff. f .i*'*'.'ii 11, ^1 |' | "('f' -rrTiFaLaiH!^^ ^ 




Torch 




Wiping Cloths 




Soil Cup 




Tack Mould 




Tack Mould 



Tool Bags 





Fig. 38. 



72 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



Hammer 




Saws 




Cold Chisel 



Hack Saw. 




Floor Chisel 



Gouge 




File 




Calking Chisel 



OfTseVCalking Chisel. 



Basin Wrench 




Fig. 39. 



Yarning Chisel 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 73 

illustration, making further infonnation unneces- 
sary. 

A larger number of tools than those shown 

Side Edge 



Bossing Stick 



Dresser 



Chipping Knives 



Shave Hook 



Tap Borer 




Turn IPin 



Divider 




Washer Cutter 





Bending Pin 



Drift Plug 



Fig. 40. 



Grease Box 






Will sometimes be necessary for special work, 
or work that has to be done under difficulties. 

Figs. 41 and 42 show two styles of plumber ^s 
blow-torches, and Figs. 43 and 44, two solder 



74 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



pots. The air pressure is generated by means 
of rubber bulb in the solder pot shown in Fig. 
43, and by means of a small hand pump in the 
one shown in Fig. 44. 




Fig. 41. 



A rubber force cup for cleaning bathtubs, 
washbowls and sinks is shown in Fig. 45. 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



75 




Fig. 42. 



Fig. 43. 





Fig. 44. 



Fig. 45. 



76 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



A thawing steamer for thawing pipes that 
have been frozen during a cold spell is illus- 



trated in Fig. 46. 







^^. 



Si ^ '■!!!ii|-!.':!-'iliii!im!|[;ii- ff 



I' '"'bifil;!^ 



%S^B^ 



Pig. 46. 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS. 

Soil and Waste Pipe Fittings. One-quarter 
and one-sixth, and one-eigiith and one-sixteentn 




Fig. 47. 






Fig. 48. 



cast iron soil pipe bends or elbows are shown 
in Figs. 47 and 48 respectively, and long one- 
quarter and one-eiglitli bend in Figs. 49 and 50. 

77 



78 DRAINAGE FITTINGS 

Quarter bends with heel and side outlets are 
shown in Figs. 51 and 52. 

A long quarter turn or sanitary bend is shown 
in Fig. 53. 

Figures 54, 55 and 56 show a T-branch soil 
pipe with left-hand inlet, a sanitary T-branch 





Fig. 49. Fig. 50. 

with right-hand inlet and a Y-branch with right- 
hand inlet, respectively. 

A plain T-branch, a sanitary T-branch, a Y- 
branch and a half Y-branch are shown in Figs. 
57, 58, 59 and 60. 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



79 





Fig. 51. 



Fig. 52. 




Fig. 53. 



Fig. 54. 



80 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 





Fig. 55. 



Fig. 56. 





Fig. 57. 



Fig. 58. 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



81 



A plain T-branch, a sanitary T-brancli, a cross 
and a sanitar}^ cross all tapped for iron pipe are 



shown in Figs. 61 and 62. 





Pig. 59. 



Fig. 60. 





Fig. 61. 



82 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



A plain cross, a sanitary cross, a double Y- 
brancli and double half Y-brancli are shown in 
Figs. 63, 64, 65 and 66, 





Fig. 62. 




Fig. 63. 



Fig. 64, 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



^ 



A ventilating' cap and a Y-saddle liub are il- 
histrated in Fig. 67, and half Y-saddle liub and 
a T-saddle hub in Fig. 68. 




Fig. 65. 




Fig. 66. 



A ventilating branch tapped for iron pipe, an 
inverted Y-branch and a plain ventilating branch 
pipe are shown in Figs. 69, 70 and 71. 



84 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 





Fig. 67. 





Fig. 68. 





Fig. 69. 



Fig. 70. 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



85 



A T-branch, a sanitary T-brancli and a Y- 
branch Avitli trap-screw are sliown in Figs. 72, 
73 and 74. 





Fig. 71. 



Fig. 72. 





Fig. 73. 



Fig. 74. 



86 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



Traps. A running trap with hand-hole and 
cover, and one with two hnb-vents are illus- 
trated in Figs. 75 and 76. 




Fig. 75. 




Fig. 76, 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



87 



A full S-trap, a three-quarter S-trap and a 

half S-trap, are illustrated in Figs. 77, 78 and 79. 

An S-trap, a three-quarter S-trap and a half 




Fig. 77. 





Fig. 78. 



Fig. 79. 



88 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



S-trap, all with hand-hole and cover, are shown 
in Figs. 80, 81 and 82. 




Fig. 80. 




Fig. 81. 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



89 



A full S-trap, a three-quarter S-trap and a half 
S-trap all with top vent are shown in Figs. 83, 
84 and 85. 




Fig. 82. 




Fig. 83. 



90 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



A plain running trap and a running trap with 
hub-vent are illustrated in Figs. 86 and 87. 
Lead Traps. Traps with full S, three-quarter 




Fig. 84. 




Fig. 85. 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



dl 



S, half S or P and running bends are shown 
in Fig. 88, both plain and vented. 




Fig. 86. 




Fig. 87. 



^2 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



CO 

a 

u 

H 

<u 




DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



9-5 



a> 

a 
o 






2 




fe 



9/ 



DRAINAGE iTlTTINGo 



Extra long plain and vented S-traps are also 



shown in Fig. 89. 




Fig. 90. 



Fig. 91. 




Fig 92. 



Fig 93. 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



95 



Hopper Traps. A liigli pattern S-trap for lead 
pipe connections is shown in Fig. 90, and a liigii 
pattern tliree-qnarter and half S-trap for iron 
pipe connections in Figs. 91 and 92. 




Fig. 94. 



Fig. 95. 




Fig. 96. 



S6 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



A plain tliree-quarier S high pattern hopper 
trap, a three-quarter S high pattern hopper trap 
with hub-vent a nd th ree-quarter S high pattern 




Fig. 97. 




Fig. 98. 



hopper trap with hand hole and cover, are 
shown in Figs. 93, 94 and 95. 
A high pattern plain S-trap, a high pattern S- 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



97 



trap with hub-vent and a high pattern S-trap 
with hand hole and cover, all for lead pipe con- 
nections, are shown in Figs. 96, 97 and 98. 

The same style of S-traps only for iron pipe 
connections are shown in Figs. 99, 100 and 101„ 




Fig. 99. 




Fig 100. 



98 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 




Fig. 101. 




Fig. 102. 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



99 



A half S-trap plain, a half S-trap with hub- 
vont and a half S-trap with hand hole and cover 
are shown in Figs. 102, 103 and 104. 

Sewer gas and back water traps are shown in 
Fig. 105. They have hand holes and covers and 




Fig. 103. 




Fig. 104. 



100 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



swing check valves to prevent any back flow of 
water. 




Fig. 105. 




Fig. 106. 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



101 



Brass trap caps with straight and bent coup- 
ling's are shown in Figs. 106 and 107. 

Cleanouts. Cleanouts with hand-hole and 
swivel cover, with hand-hole and bolted cover 




Fig. 107. 




Fig. 108. 



102 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



and with brass trap-screw are shown in Figs. 
108, 109 and 110. 




Fig. 109. 




Pig. 110. 




Fig. 111. 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



103 



Cesspools. A hydrant cesspool for use with 
cellar or outdoor hydrants is shown in Fig. 111. 
A stable cesspool with bell-trap and grating is 




Fig. 112. 




Fig. 113. 



104 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



illustrated in Fig. 112, while Fig. 113 sliows a 
slop sink witli bell-trap and strainer. A cellar 
ces-pool with bell-trap and grating of rectangu- 
lar^shape is shown in Fig. 114, while one of cir- 
cular shape is illustrated in Fig. 115. 




Fig. Hi. 




Fig. 115. 




FIG 116. BATHROOM 



SANITARY PLUMBING. 

The Bathroom. There are good reasons why 
a l)athroom sliould be finished in the best man- 
ner in preference to any other room in the house. 
As a rule, the bathroom is more used than any 
other room in the house except the kitchen. It 
requires ' the best material to stand such con- 
stant use, and it is always economy to have the 
best material for purposes where hard usage or 
work is to be performed. Without a good fin- 
ish, with the proper materials for this purpose, 
the bathroom cannot be kept in a sanitary con- 
dition. From the sanitary condition of the bath- 
room the sanitary condition of the entire house 
may be judged. Any person who pays atten- 
tion to the sanitary condition of a house, can 
also tell the nature of the people who occupy it. 
Where the bathroom is neglected, scarcely any 
other part of the house will be in a proper sani- 
tary condition. 

A bathroom should be well lighted with win- 
dows, so that the sunlight may come in. It 
should be heated to a much higher temperature 
than any other room in the house, and should be 
thoroughly ventilated. The walls, doors, and 
casings should be of such material that they will 

105 



106 SANITARY PLUMBING 

be proof against water and steam. The floors 
should never be covered with carpet, as it is a 
verj unsanitary thing in any bathroom. Hard 
wood makes a good floor for a bathroom. 

The bathroom of the modern house is often 
the most expensive room in the house, as today 
people who have both taste and means are spend- 
ing large sums of money in securing the most 
sanitary fixtures for the bathroom and the high- 
est degTee of art in everything pertaining to 
the bathroom. Fig. 116 shows a, bathroom in 
which all the fixtures are open work, a roll- 
rinnned porcelain lined bathtub with carved 
brass feet, and also screen shower attachment, 
a sitz bath of the same material and finish as 
the bathtub, a syphon closet with low down flush 
tank, a washbowl with nickel-plated legs and 
brackets as supports, also nickel-plated supply 
and waste fixtures. 

Bathtubs. In Fig. 117 is shown a porcelain 
roll rim bathtub. This is a sanitar}^ article in 
every manner, as it requires no w^oodwork about 
it, and as this bathtub is made entirely of one 
piece, there is no chance for dirt to lodge in any 
part of it. This bathtub will last a life-time; 
once properly set there will be no further ex- 
pense for repairs. The porcelain bathtub is 
not without some fault or disadvantage; it is 
very heavy to handle. It is no easy matter to 
carry a bathtub of this kind up one or two 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



107 




108 SANITARY PLUMBING 

flights of stairs and land it safely to where it is 
to be set. It requires the greatest care in hand- 
ling. In using the porcelain bathtub it has an- 
other bad point in being very cold to the touch 
until it has become entirely wann from the hot 
water. 

What is styled a corner porcelain bathtub is 
illustrated in Fig. 118, the back and end of the 
tub are to be built into the wall, and the base sets 
into the floor. It is fitted with nickel-plated 
combination bell supply and waste fittings, which 
are connected directly to the bathtub itself. 

Three styles of porcelain enameled bathtul)s 
are shown in Figs. 119, 120 and 121, the supply 
and waste are connected directly to the bathtubs 
shown in Figs. 119 and 120, while the bathtub 
shown in Fig. 121 has only the waste and over- 
flow connections on the tub. 

A solid porcelain roll rim sitz bath is illus- 
trated in Fig. 122. It is fitted with nickel-plated 
combination bell supply and waste fittings. 

A porcelain enameled footbath is shown in 
Fig. 123, it is also fitted with nickel-plated com- 
bination bell supply and waste fittings. 

Fig. 124 illustrates a combination spray and 
shower bath with rubber curtain and porcelain 
enameled roll rim receptor. 

The proper sanitary plumbing connections for 
a bathtub are shown in Fig. 125. The cast iron 
soil pipe is 4 inches in diameter, the main air 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



109 







110 



SANITARY PLUMBING 




bo 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



11^ 




o 



312 



SANITARY PLUMBING 




fa 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



113 



pipe 2 inches, and the air-vent pipe on the con- 
nection leading from the trap ly^ inches; the 
waste and overflow from the tuh are also 1% 
inches in diameter. 

Water Closets. The washout closet is, per- 
haps, the best sanitary water closet, and they 




Fig. 122. 

are made by nearly all manufacturers of sani- 
taiy fixtures. This closet is made with the bowl 
and trap combined in one single piece. The 
washout closet would be almost perfect if it 
were set up and connected as intended to be, 
and with a good local vent connected. The local 



114 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



vent is the best possible thing that conld be 
attached to a water closet, but, like all other 
arrangements, it must be made in such a way so 
that it will operate at all times and during every 
condition of the atmosphere. The local vent is 




connected to the bowl of the closet for the 
purpose of taking away the air from the bowl 
of the closet in the room where it may be lo- 
cated, so that no foul odors while being used 
will pass from the closet to the room. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



liD 




Fig. 124. 



116 



SANITARY PLUMBING 




SANITAKY PLUMBING 117 

To make the local vent work satisfactorily at 
all times it will be necessary to arrange the pipes 
so that there wonld always be a suction in the 
pipe drawing from the point which is connected 
with the water closet bowl. This pipe can never 
be connected with the main ventilating shaft of 
the soil pipe, but must escape from the house 
by some other channel. In order to cause this 
local current of air to pass up and out of the 
house from the water closet bowl, it will be 
necessary to provide some artificial heat for this 
purpose. And where it is possible to connect 
to a chimney flue that is always wanu when the 
house is occupied, the desired result may be had 
without any additional expense. 

The washout closet is far from being an ideal 
sanitar\^ fixture. It is an improvement over the 
hopper style of closet, yet its principle is not 
correct because it does not wash out. The ob- 
jection to the washout closet is, that its bowl 
becomes filthy in a short time, and without hav- 
ing attached to it a local vent the bad odors 
from the bowl become unbearable. In the bowl 
of the washout closet there is too much dry sur- 
face, and the soil clings to it and cannot be 
washed off with the flow of water as it falls from 
the tank. The appearance of the inside of this 
closet is also very bad, especially the style of 
washout with the back outlet as shown in Fig. 
126. 



118 SANITARY PLUMBING 

Fig. 127 shows a washout closet with front 
outlet. 

A short oval flushing rim hopper water closet, 
with trap and air vent on the top of sy]Dhon is 
shown in Pig. 128. 

Two styles of seat operated water closets are 
shown in Figs. 129 and 130, one with long hop- 



Fig. 126. 

per without trap and the other with short hop- 
per and trap. The seat is normally kept open 
by the weight shown to the right, when de- 
pressed by the act of a person sitting upon the 
closet, the small arm or lever attached to the 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



119 




Fig. 127. 




Fig. 128. 



120 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



seat comes into contact with the plunger valve, 
causing the water to flow as long as the seat is 
down. 
A syphon jet water closet with low down tank 




Fig. 129. 



is shown in Fig. 131. It is necessary with this 
style of tank to increase the diameter of the 
flush pipe in order to induce syphonage in the 
closet. With this increased opening a large quan- 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



121 



tity of water is thrown into the closet, which is 
sufficient to make the syphon operate. 

A prison water closet with short hopper and 
trap to wall connection is shown in Fig. 132. A 




Fig, 130. 



self-closing faucet is connected to the flushing 

n. 

A syphon jet closet set up complete with hard- 



rim. 



122 



SANITARY PLUMBING 




Fig. 131. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



123 



wood, copper-lined syphon tank and concealed 
water supply pipe is shown in Fig. 133. 

Water closet seats with legs and with or 
without lid are shown in Figs. 134 and 135. 

The proper sanitar^^ plumbing connections for 
a washout water closet are shown in Fig. 136. 



§S^^ 




Fig. 132. 



The cast iron soil pipe and the lead elbow 
which connects the trap of the closet with the 
soil pipe are both 4 inches inside diameter while 
the air-vent from the lead elbow and the main 



124 



SANITARY PLUMBING 




Fig. 133. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



125 




Fig. 135. 



126 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



air pipe are 2 inches inside diameter. The air- 
vent pipe is of lead and the main air pipe of 
cast iron. 

Urinals. A flat back porcelain urinal is illus- 




Fig. 136. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



127 



trated in Fig. 137, and comer porcelain urinals 
in Figs. 138 and 139. These are adapted for use 
in hotels and office buildings. 




Fig. 137. 




Fig. 138. 



128 SANITARY PLUMBING 

Individual stall urinals are shown in Figs. 140 
and 141. Tlie one shown in Fig. 140 has a plain 
stall with floor trough and spray pipe, while the 
one show^n in Fig. 141 has urinal bowls or hop- 
pers attached to the back wall. A complete 
toilet room containing closets, urinals and wash- 
bowls is shown in Fig. 142. This represents the 
interior of a toilet room in a hotel or office build- 
ing. 




Fig. 139. 



Washbowls. A job which requires experience 
and good judgment is the setting of porcelain 
washbowls to marble slabs. Although it may 
look like an easy job, no one can do this work 
well unless having had considerable experience. 
In setting washbowls to marble slabs there are 
some things to be considered, and to accomplish 
these things in a satisfactory manner there must 



SANITARY PLUMBING 129 

be some calculations made. To liave a wash- 
bowl properly fitted to a marble slab it is neces- 
sary to grind tlie flange of the bowl so that it 



Pig. 140. 

will lay level on the slab. This has to be done 
by rubbing the upper surface of the flange of the 



130 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



bowl on the marble, using sand and water on 
the marble, until the top edge of the bowl is 
perfectly flat and level. This grinding action 




Fig. 141. 



also takes off the glazed surface and allows the 
plaster-of-Paris to take hold of the procelain 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



131 







132 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



and make a perfect joint. The bowl must be set 
perfectly even all around with the hole in the 
slab. The less plaster used in setting bowls the 
better. It is a poor job that has to be filled up 
with a large amount of plaster. To get the posi- 
tion of the holes for the bowl clamps, it will be 
necessary to mark on the back of the slab the 
exact position of the edge of the bowl, then 




space off the distance and drill the slab for at 
least four clamps. In drilling the slab for the 
clamp holes the polished surface of the slab must 
rest on the floor, and in order not to scratch or 
injure it the slab should have under it a bed of 
some soft and clean material. The clamps should 
be well calked into the slab with melted lead, 
and made so that they will not shake nor pull 

out. 
Independent bowls for attaching to marble 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



133 



slabs are shown in Figs. 143 and 144. They are 
provided with brass plugs and coupling and 
rubber stopper for the waste. 

A roll-edge washbowl with removable strainer 
at the overflow, nickel-plated plug and coupling 
and rubber stopper, and bronzed brackets is 
shown in Fig. 145. 

A half-circle roll edge washbowl with high 




Fig. 144. 

back and apron, cast in one piece, is shown in 
Fig. 146. 

Fig. 147 shows a roll-edge oval washbowl with 
overflow with removable strainer, bronzed brack- 
ets, nickel-plated plug and coupling and rubber 
stopper. 

A roll-edge comer washbowl with oval bowl, 
removable nickel-plated strainer, nickel-plated 
plug and coupling and rubber stopper is shown 
in Fig. 148. 



134 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



, r"''l'"tT 




Fig. 145. 




Fig. 146. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



135 




Fig. 147. 




Fig. 148. 



136 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



A roll-edge slab and bowl with ideal waste is 
shown in Fig. 149. It has a round bowl and 
high back. 

A vertical cross section of the above bowl 
showing the ideal waste is given in Pig. 150. 

The proper sanitary plumbing connections 




Fig. 149. 

for a washbowl are shown in Fig. 151. The 
cast iron soil pipe is 4 inches in diameter. The 
waste pipe from the bowl and the air-vent pipe 
from the top of the syphon are 1% inches and 
the main air pipe 2 inches in diameter. 
Drinking Fountains. A solid porcelain double 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



13? 



roll edge drinking fountain with back and bowl 
in one piece is shown in Fig. 152. It has a self- 
closing faucet and nickel-plated drip-cup with 
strainer. A one-piece solid porcelain drinking 
fountain with roll-edge bowl is shown in Fig. 




Fig. 150. 

153. It has a self-closing faucet and nickel- 
plated half S-trap. 

A marble drinking fountain is shown in Fig. 

154, which has a counter sunk slab and high 
back, nickel-plated Fuller pantry cock, drip-cock 
with shield, nickel-plated supply pipe, and trap 
with vent and waste to wall. 



138 



SANITARY PLUMBING 




Fig. 151. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



139 



A drinking fountain with marble slab, back 
and side-pieces, nickel-plated Fuller pantry 
cock, drip cup with shield and nickel-plated 
brackets is shown in Fig. 155. 

Sinks. The enameled iron sink is a great ad- 
vancement in sanitary improvements. When 




Fig. 152. 



made properly and used for light work it is all 
that could be desired, because it is coated with 
a material which wears well, and is also proof 
against the action of gases or acids. It has a 
smooth finish and is easily kept clean, but it is 
not suitable for heavy or rough work. In the 



140 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



larger sinks this enameled coating cracks off 
easily when heavy utensils are placed in it, 
which causes the sink to bend, and the enamel, 




^ 
# 



Fig. 153. 



having very little elasticity, must naturally 
crack. It sometimes cracks by the uneven or 
sudden expansion and contraction of the iron, 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



141 



and as soon as the coating is partly cracked off 
the sink becomes sanitarily bad. 

A roll rim enameled iron sink is shown in Fig. 
156. It has a high back, concealed air cham- 




Fig. 154. 



hers and nickel-plated faucets. A comer enam- 
eled iron sink with roll rim, high back, concealed 
air chambers and nickel-plated faucets is shown 



142 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



in Fig. 157. Instead of having brackets for 
support, it is carried by the walls and one leg. 
A plain enameled iron sink is shown in Fig. 
158. 







Fig. 155. 



A roll rim dra^vn steel sink with high back 
is illustrated in Fig. 159. 

Grease Trap. Grease from the kitchen sink 
not only stops up the sink waste pipe, but it 
will often stop up the main sewer. When a 
pipe becomes choked with grease it cannot be 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



143 



forced out by pressure, or tlie use of potash or 
lye for the purpose of dissolving it. The only 
remedy in such a case is to cut the pipe and 
take out the grease. This is very expensive, 
and costs a great deal more than a grease trap 




Fig. 156. 



that could have been placed on the sink when 
new, and would have prevented such trouble. 
Fig. 160 shows a device made specially for kitch- 



U4: 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



en sinks in hotels and restaurants to prevent 
grease from getting into the waste pipes. It 
traps the pipe against air or sewer gas coming 
into the house, and is called a grease trap. 
In places where the grease trap is used it is a 




Fig. 157. 



source of revenue as well as a prevention against 
the stopping of pipes by saving the grease, which 
is caught in the trajD, and selling it for soft soap. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



145 




00 
W) 



146 



SANITARY PLUMBING 




Fig. 159. 




Fig. 160. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 147 

Laundry Tubs. Stoneware malves the best 
kind of laundry tub from every point of view, 
and tliey are almost as cheap as enameled iron 
tubs. The stoneware is non-absorbent. It is 
A^ery smooth, and wiJl not crack by the varia- 
tions of heat and cold. This style of laundry 
tub should be set on a solid foundation of either 
brick piers or good strong cast iron legs; there 
should be no woodwork around it, and even a 
wooden cover is very bad on a laundry tub. Some 
persons cover over the laundry tub for the pur- 
pose of making it answer as an ironing board, 
but it is not intended for this purpose. To closo 
up the top of the laundry tubs prevents the 
air from circulating through them, and what lit- 
tle i^articles of soap or other matter that re- 
main even after cleaning the tubs soon form into 
a gas which makes a very unpleasant smell when 
the cover is raised. 

A stoneware laundry tub with metal rim, brass 
plugs, strainers, overflow and waste connections 
is shown in Fig. 161. 

A somewhat similar stoneware laundry tub is 
shown in Fig. 162, only without the metal rim 
on the edges of the tub. It has a high back and 
the faucets are above the level of the tub proper. 

The proper sanitary plumbing connections for 
a laundry tub are shown in Fig. 163. The waste 
pipes from the tubs and the connection from the 
trap to the main waste are iy2 inches diameter; 



148 



SANITARY PLUMBING 




Fig. 161. 







Eig...l^ 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



149 



the air- vent pipe from the outlet of the trap is 
also V/2 inches. The main waste and main air 
pipes are 2 inches in diameter. The waste pipes 
from the tubs, the connection from the trap to 




Fig. 163. 



the main waste and the air-vent pipe are of lead. 
The main air and the main waste pipes are of 
cast iron. 



BATHROOM AND KITCHEN FITTINGS. 

Washbowl Traps. A nickel-plated brass wash- 
bowl floor-trap without vent is shown in Fig. 
164, and a similar washbowl floor-trap with wall- 
vent in Fig. 165. 

A nickel-plated brass washbowl wall trap, 
with or without the coupling plug and stopper is 
shown in Figs. 166 and 167. 

A nickel-plated brass washbowl floor trap with 
wall-vent is shown in Fig. 168. 

Washbowl Plugs. Washbowl plugs with thim- 
ble, coupling and rubber stoppers are shown in 
Figs. 169 and 170. 

A washbowl plug with thimble, coupling and 
brass stopper is shown in Fig. 171. 

Laundry or Bathtub Plugs. A tub plug with 
flange drilled for countersunk screws or bolts is 
shown in Fig. 172 and the rubber stopper for the 
same in Fig. 173. 

Another form of tub plug is shown in Fig. 174. 
This style of plug is to be either cemented or 
soldered in place. A tub plug with extra wide 
flange drilled for countersunk bolts and with 
brass stopper is illustrated in Fig. 175. 

Sink Strainers. A sink strainer with flange 
drilled with holes for countersunk bolts is shown 

150 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 



151 




Fir. 164, 



152 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 




Fig. 165. 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 



153 



in Fig. 176, and a. sink-strainer with lock-nut 
and coupling in Fig. 177; plug and open strain- 
ers are shown in Figs. 178 and 179. 

Bathtub Fittings. Figures 180 and 181 illus- 




Fig. 166. 



trate two forms of compression combination 
bath-cocks. The one shown in Fig. 180 has the 
handles horizontal and the combination fitting in 
sight, while the fitting shown in Fig. 181 has 



154 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 



only the cock-handles and the supply nozzle ox- 
posed. 

Urinal Fittings. A compression nrinal cock 
with union and adjustable flanges is shown in 
Fig. 182. and a self-closing urinal cock with 




Fig. 167. 

flanges and thimble for soldering in Fig. 183. 

A urinal inlet connection with union and ad- 
justable flange is shown in Fig. 184, and a urinal 
outlet connection of similar construction in Fig. 
185. 

A nickel-plated brass urinal trap with union 
and adjustable flanges is illustrated in Fig. 186. 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 



155 




Fig. 168. 



156 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 



Faucets. A plain bibb compression faucet for 
lead pipe, witli flange and thimble is shown in 
Fig. 187, and a, hose-bibb compression faucet 
with flange and thimble in Fig. 188. 

A plain-bibb compression faucet with shouldei 
for iron pipe is shown in Fig. 189, and a hose^ 




Fig. 169. 

bibb compression faucet with shoulder for iror 
pipe in Fig. 190. 

Fig. 191 shows a plain bibb compression faucet 
with flange and inside thread for iron pipe and 
Fig. 192 a hose-bibb compression faucet with 
flange and inside thread for iron pipe. 

A plain bibb L-handle ground faucet with 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 



157 





Fig. 170. 



Fig. 171. 





Fig. 172. 



Fig. 173, 



158 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 




Fig. 177. 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 



15y 




Fig. 178. 




Fig. 179. 




Fig. 180. 



160 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 




Fig. 182. 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 



161 




Fig. 183. 



162 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 




Fig. 184. 




Fig. 185. 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 



163 




Pig. 186. 




Fig. 187. 



164 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 




Fig. 188. 




Fig. 189. 



Fig. 190. 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 



165 



shoulder for iron pipe is illustrated in Fig. 193, 
and a hose-bibb L-handle ground faucet with 
shoulder for iron pipe in Fig. 194. 





Fig. 191. 



Fig. 192. 




Fig. 193. 



A plain bibb L-handle ground faucet for lead 
pipe is shown in Fig. 195, and a hose-bibb L- 
handle ground faucet for lead pipe in Fig. 196. 



166 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 




Fig. 194. 




Fig. 195. 




Pig. 196. 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 167 

Self-closing Faucet. Self-closing faucets are 
fitted with either a torsion or a compression 
form of spring, which always holds the valve 
on its seat, except when in use, and then it must 
be held up by the hand which acts against the 
spring through a T or L-handled lever, and when 
released the spring by its own pressure closes 
the valve against the flow of the water. The ad- 
vantages of a self-closing faucet are to prevent 
the overflowing of washbowls, bathtubs, sinks 
and other fixtures. The water cannot be left 
running when the self-closing style is used, as 
when they are released by the hand, the pressure 
of the spring immediately closes the valve and 
shuts off the water. One style of self-closing bibb 
cock is shown in Fig. 197. The details of con- 
struction are very clearly shown in the drawing. 
The valve has a square thread of very quick 
pitch upon its stem, which is surrounded by a 
torsion spring, one end of which is attached to 
the head of the valve and the other to the under 
side of the threaded cap or cover of the faucet. 
Upon turning the valve by means of the T-handle 
on its outer and upper end the valve is raised 
from its seat by the action of the screw. At the 
same time the spring is compressed, upon re- 
leasing the handle the spring brings the valve 
back upon its seat. 

Bibb and Stop-Cocks. A Fuller plain bibb 
cock with shoulder for iron pipe is shown in Fig. 



168 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 



198, and a Fuller hose-bibb cock with shoulder 
for iron pipe is shown in Fig. 199. 




Fig. 197. 



Fig. 200 illustrates a Ftiller plain bibb cock 
with flange and iron pipe thread, and Fig. 201 
a Fuller hose-bibb with flange and iron pipe 
thread. 

A Fuller plain bibb cock with flange and in- 
side thread for iron pipe is shown in Fig. 202, 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 



169 



and a Fuller liose-bibb with flange and inside 
thread for iron pipe in Fig. 203. 




Fig. 198. 



Fig. 199. 




Fig. 200. 



Fig. 201. 




Fig. 202. 



Fig. 203. 



170 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 



Different styles of Fuller basin cocks are 
shown in Figs.* 204, 205, 206 and 207. Self-clos- 




Fig. 204. 




^^f%K-^^l^^ 



Fig. 205. 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 



171 




Fig. 206. 




Fig. 207. 



172 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 



ing basin cocks are shown in Figs. 208 and 209, 
the one shown in Fig. 208 is to be connected tO' 
the slab and the one in Fig. 209 to the back of 
the wash basin. 
An L-handle stop-cock for lead pipe is shown 




Fig. 209. 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 



173 



in Pig. 210, and an L-liandle stop-cock for lead 
pipe with clieck and waste in Fig. 211. 

A T-handle straiglit-way stop-cock for lead 
pipe is shown in Fig. 212, and also an L-handle 




Fig. 211. 




Pig. 212. 



174 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 



straiglit-way stop-cock for lead pipe with clieck 
and waste in Fig. 213. 

A T-liandle round-way stop-cock for iron pipe 
is shown in Fig. 214, and also a T-handle round- 
way stop-cock with check and waste. 




Fig. 213. 





Fig. 214. 

An L-handle straight-way stop-cock for iron 
pipe is shown in Fig. 215, and also an L-handle 
straight-way cock with check and waste for iron 
pipe. 

An Ij-handle round- way stop-cock for iron pipe 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 



175 



is illustrated in Fig. 216, and also' an L-handle 
round-way stop-cock witli check and waste. 

A semi-finislied T-liandle stop-cock for iron 
pipe is shown in Fig. 217, also a semi-finished 




Pig. 217. 



176 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 



T^handle stop-coek for iron pipe with check and 
waste. 

A semi-finished L-handle stop-cock for iron 
pipe is shown in Fig. 218, and a semi-finished L- 
handled stop-cock with check and waste in Fie- 
219. ^* 





Pig. 219. 



A T-handle straight-way stop-cock for iron 
pipe is shown in Fig. 220; also a T-handle 
straight-way stop-cock with check and waste. 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 



177 



Boiler and Water-back Fittings. The best pipe 
to use for boiler and water-back connections is 
brass, witli fittings of the same material having 
threaded joints. A soldered joint should not be 
used in these connections, and where unions are 
to be used they should be ground-joint unions, 
that is, w^ithout packing. Lead pipe is too soft 
for this purpose; and further will not stand the 
high temperature which the water in these con- 





Fig. 220. 

nections sometimes attains. Wrought-iron pipe 
will either rust solidly^ or be honey-combed and 
cut to pieces by the action of the water in a 
very little while. 

Boiler fittings are shown in Figs. 221 and 222, 
and water-back connections in Figs. 223 and 224. 

Combination Soldering Fittings. For connect- 
ing lead to wrought iron pipe the soldering nip- 
ples shown in Figs. 225 and 226 are very suita- 
able, they have male or female pipe thread on 



178 



BATHEOOM FITTINGS 



one end and can be soldered directly to lead 
pipe at the other end. 

Combination Lead Pipe Coupling". Many 
methods are in use for coupling lead pipe tc 
pipes made of other material such as wrought 





Fig. 221. 



Fig. 222. 





Fig. 223. 



Fig. 224. 





Fig. 225. 





Fig. 226. 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 



179 



iron or brass, but all these methods have cer- 
tain features which are common to all, an ex- 
ample of such a coupling is shown in Fig. 227. 

The casting A is threaded on the outside and 
provided with a female threaded coupling part 
C. A flanged bushing D is placed over the pipe 




Fig. 227. 

B and inside the shouldered opening of C. The 
lower portion of the casting is of cone shape to 
fit the inside of the pipe B, so that when the 
coupling C is tightened the lead pipe is expand- 
ed as shown in the drawing and a tight joint 
thereby made. 

Traps. A trap is a vessel which contains 
water, its purpose is to prevent the passage of 



180 BATHROOM FITTINGS 

sewer gas and other foul odors from the sewer 
into the house, or to prevent the entrance 
tlirough the house fixtures of gas and noxious 
odors that may be formed between the main 
trap and the liouse fixtures. The water seal of 
a trap should not be less than 1% tO' 2 inches. 

The seal of a trap may be broken in different 
ways, viz: by syphonage, evaporation, back 
pressurage and momentum or the action of the 
waste itself as it may pass oft' with considerable 
force. 

A good trap should have a good seal, it 
should be non-syphonable, self -cleaning and have 
as few comers or places where dirt or refuse 
may collect as possible. 

The S-trap and the drum or cylinder trap are 
two forms most used. 

The back pressure or gas from the sewer will 
saturate the water in a trap with sewer gas, 
therefore all traps should be back-vented from 
the sewer side of the siphon and at the highest 
point of the same. 

Traps should always be counter-vented, prin- 
cipally to prevent syphonage, to ventilate the 
plumbing system and to relieve back pressure. 

Counter-venting. A counter-vent is a pipe by 
means of which a trap is supplied with air, to 
prevent the partial or total syphonage of the 
trap and also ventilate the plumbing system of 
the house. 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 181 

Counter- vents from fixture traps should al- 
ways be carried into the main air-pipe and high- 
er than the top of the fixture or else directly 
through the roof. 

The counter-vent from a water closet should 
always be vented from the highest point of the 
syphon and never from a. lower point where the 
flushing action of the closet would throw waste 
matter into the entrance of the counter-vent or 
at any point where the waste would be liable to 
settle in the vent-pipe. 

Calking Joints. A ring of oakum is first forc- 
ed into the joint, and then set with a calking 
tool until hard. After the oakum is firmly calk- 
ed, an asbestos rope is placed around the top of 
the joint, leaving a small opening at the top 
for pouring the melted lead. The melted lead is 
then poured, and after cooling, firmly set down 
with the calking tool, care being taken to thor- 
oughly calk the inner and outer edges of the 
lead circle. The lead in a 4-inch soil pipe should 
be about 1 inch deep. 



SOLDER. 

The composition and properties of solders are 
a matter of considerable interest to all metal 
workers, but the subject is of especial import- 
ance to plumbers, because on the quality and 
purity of solder depend in a large measure the 
reliability and good appearance of their work. 
Nothing is more annoying, nor is there anything 
so productive of bad work, waste of time, and 
consequent irritability and bad temper, as the 
tr\4ng to do good work with bad material, par- 
ticularly if that material is wiping or plumbers' 
solder. Until recent years it was invariably the 
practice for plumbers to make their own solders, 
either from the pure lead and tin, or, old joints 
and solders were melted down, and tin added in 
proportion. Of late years it is becoming quite 
unusual for plumbers to know anything about 
solder-making. Plumbers consider it more eco- 
nomical to buy it, already made, from firms who 
make solder-making a branch of their manu- 
facturing trade. Another advantage is, that if 
supplied by a firm of good standing it can gen- 
erally be depended upon for purity and uniform 
quality. 

Good plumbers' solder should consist of two 

182 



SOLDER 183 

parts of lead to one of tin, but the proportions, 
of course, vary according to the quality of the 
constituent parts. Tin, for instance, varies very 
much in quality, and no fluxing or a super- 
abundance of the tin will make good solder if 
this metal is of an inferior kind. It is, there- 
fore, far the most economical in the long run to 
use tin of the very best quality. 

As the exact proportions, as they are gener- 
ally given, depend to a very great extent upon 
the condition of the two metals, it follows that 
the mere mixing of certain quantities of tin and 
lead does not necessarily make a composition 
that will serve the purpose that it is intended 
for, but a plumber with an experienced eye can 
detect at a glance the inferiority and usefulness 
of such solders when required for the execution 
of good work. 

Although it is not absolutely necessary that a 
good solder-maker should be a. plumber, it is 
important that he should have a considerable 
knowledge of the appearance of solder in proper 
condition. In the absence of a practical test, 
there are certain indications by which the solder 
may be judged, whether it is good or bad. The 
most common practice is to run out a strip of 
solder on a smooth level stone. As soon as the 
strip is nearly cold, the quality of the solder or 
the proper proportion of tin and lead can be de- 
termined by the appearance of both surfaces. It 



184 SOLDER 

is important, before running the solder out on 
the stone, that it should be at such a, heat as 
to allow the solder to run freely. A tempera- 
ture just below red heat is the most suitable for 
this purpose^ if the solder is not hot enough, it 
will have a dull white look, whether it is good 
or bad. 

If it is in good condition, it should have a 
clean, silvery appearance, bright spots should 
also form on the surface from an eighth to a 
quarter of an inch in diameter. As a rule, the 
larger the spots the finer is the solder, although 
some kinds of tin will not show large spots, 
however much is used. In such cases they 
should appear more numerous. 

If the strip has a dull, dirty appearance and 
a mottled surface, it is evident the solder is not 
as pure as it should be. It probably contains 
some mineral impurities, which can generally be 
removed by well heating the solder in the pot, 
and stirring into it a quantity of resin and 
tallow. These substances have but very little, 
if any, chemical effects, either upon the solder 
or the foreign matters it may contain, but the 
action that seems to take place is that they 
combine with the lighter mineral matters by 
what may be called adhesive attraction, and 
cause them to rise to the surface, where they can 
be skimmed off. There are some earthy impurities 
that get into the solder, the specific gravities of 



SOLDER - 185 

which are probably much lighter than the solder 
itself, but which will not rise to the surface un- 
til assisted by means of fluxes. It must be re- 
membered that although tin has a specific gravity 
of 7.3 and lead 11.445, it is therefore, necessary 
to well stir the solder while it is being poured 
into the moulds, as the tin will continually rise 
to the top, yet if it were not stirred at all after 
it was once mixed, the lower portion would not 
be wholly deprived of tin, showing that the 
greater specific gravity of the one does not 
wholly displace the other. The same is true of 
certain impurities, which are not removed until 
they are washed out, as it were, by means of 
fluxes such as resin and tallow. 

The greatest enemy to plumbers' solder is 
zinc. If the slightest trace of this metal gets 
into a pot of solder, it is almost a matter of 
impossibility to wipe joints with it, especially 
underhand joints. 

When zinc is present, the strip of solder has a 
dull, crystallized appearance on the surface. The 
tin spots are also very dull and rough, and not 
at all bright and clean. When solder of this 
kind is being used for wiping, the first thing 
noticed is that a thick, dirty dross forms on the 
surface directly after it is skimmed. It is im- 
possible to keep the surface clean for even a 
second. AYhen it is poured on a joint, it sets 
almost instantly, and it matters not at what heat 



186 SOLDER 

it is used. As soon as one attempts to move it 
with the cloth, it breaks to pieces, and falls off 
the joint. 

In the case of branch joints when an iron is 
used, the solder cools in hard lumps, and breaks 
away like portions of wet sand. There are two 
or three ways of extracting zinc from solder, 
one is to partly fuse it, and when it is nearly 
set to pulverize it until the particles are sep- 
arated as much as possible. The whole is then 
placed in a pot or earthenware vessel and sat- 
urated with hydrochloric acid, commonly called 
muriatic acid. The acid dissolves the zinc and 
produces chloride of zinc; the latter can be 
washed out with clean water and the solder re- 
turned to the pot in a comparatively pure state. 
This method cannot be recommended as a cer- 
tain cure, because of the difficulty there exists 
in dividing the particles to such an extent as to 
expose the whole of the zinc that may be con- 
tained in it, and considering the small amount 
of zinc that is sufficient to poison a pot of solder 
it is doubtful if the acid process is radical 
enough in its action to thoroughly eradicate the 
zinc without repeated applications. 

Sulphur is the best thing to use for this pur- 
pose. 

When a pot of solder has been found to be 
poisoned with zinc, it is heated to just below a 
red heat. Lump sulphur is broken up and gran- 



SOLDER 187 

ulated, it is then screwed up tiglit in three or 
four thicknesses of paper, and in this form is 
thrown into the pot and held below the solder 
with a ladle. As the paper bums the sulphur 
rises through the solder, combines with the zinc, 
and floats on the surface. The solder is well 
stirred so as to thoroughly mix the sulphur with 
the whole of the contents of the pot, the dross 
which is formed by this process is then skimmed 
off with a ladle and thrown away as useless. 

In the case of the sulphur, although it is gen- 
erally called a flux, the action that takes place 
is altogether different to that of resin and tal- 
low. It may safely be inferred by reference to 
the results of chemical combinations that the 
zinc, having a great affinity for sulphur, as soon 
as it comes in contact, forms sulphide of zinc, 
this is really a substance similar to zinc blende, 
a common form of zinc ore. In this condition, 
the specific gravity being considerably reduced, 
it readily rises to the surface of the solder, 
where it can be skimmed off with a ladle. 

The question naturally arises— why is it the 
sulphur does not combine with the lead to which 
it also has an affinity, and thus form sulphide of 
lead? If lead is heated only just above its melt- 
ing point and then some sulphur is mixed with 
it, a substance would be formed similar to ga- 
lena, or sulphide of lead. But if the tempera- 
ture is raised several degrees higher the sulphide 



188 SOLDER 

gives up the lead, and either floats to the top 
or passes off in the form of gaseous vapor, chem- 
ically termed sulphurous anhydride. There- 
fore, by heating the solder containing zinc to a 
temperature just below redness, it is hot enough 
to prevent the sulphur combining with the lead 
and tin, but not sufficiently heated to cause the 
sulphur to give up the zinc, which fuses at a 
temperature of 773 degrees Fahrenheit, whereas 
lead fuses at 612 degrees Fahrenheit, and in com- 
bination with tin as solder at 441 degrees Fah- 
renheit. The difference in the melting points 
is in all probability the principal cause of the 
sulphur attracting the zinc and leaving the lead 
and tin comparatively unaffected. 

Another method of extracting the zinc from 
solder is to raise the temperature to a very 
bright red heat, if this is continued long enough 
the zinc vaporizes and passes off in a gaseous 
state. 

The latter is a very wasteful process because 
it cannot be done without a large proportion of 
the tin becoming oxidized. The oxide gathers 
in the form of a powder on the surface, and is 
what is commonly known as putty powder. One 
of the most common means of spoiling solder is 
the last mentioned. 

The flowing of solder, especially that used 
with the copper-bit, depends to a large extent 
upon the fluxes that are used for tinning pur- 



SOLDER 189 

poses. For soldering lead only a very simple 
fiux is necessary, namely, a. little tallow and 
powdered resin. The same kind of flux is also 
very often used for tinning and soldering brass 
and copper, and there are many plumbers who 
use nothing else but a piece of common tallow 
candle, which seems to answer the purpose very 
well. For soldering iron, zinc, and tin goods, chlor- 
ide of zinc, or what is commonly called killed 
spirit of salt, is generally used, although it is 
not necessary to kill the hydrochloric acid when 
zinc has to be soldered. Soldering fluids and 
preparations have been invented which have, to 
a very large extent, superseded the common 
fluxes. The disadvantage of spirit of salt is ow- 
ing to the tendency it has to produce oxidation 
on iron, and chlorides on zinc, after the solder- 
ing is done. 

It would be interesting to try and find out the 
reason why a. combination of metals fuses at 
such a low temperature when compared with the 
fusing points of the component parts of the 
alloys. It is necessary to bear in mind the fact 
that all metals, and indeed all matter, are com- 
posed of minute particles or molecules, and that 
there is nothing existing that is a strictly solid 
uniform mass. It is also acknowledged that 
the molecules of different substances always as- 
sume a distinctive shape, and when metallic 
matter is cr^^stallized, as it is said to be when it 



190 SOLDER 

becomes solid by the action of cold, these par- 
ticles are attracted to each other by a force of 
more or less power according to the nature of 
the metal, whether it is said to be hard or soft. 

Now the force by which these aggregations of 
minute particles are held together is what is 
called cohesive attraction, and the power of this 
force to hold the particles together depends to 
a very great extent upon the particular shape 
which these extremely small particles assume, 
and the amount of surface which they present 
to each other. It is very easy to conceive that 
if a number of bodies have mutual attraction 
for each other, the larger the surface that comes 
in contact the more force is there exerted one 
with the other. If, for instance, the particles 
take the form of spheres like a number of mar- 
bles, the surface in actual contact is compara- 
tively very small indeed, the same would be the 
case if they were very irregular in form. But 
if each particle took the form of a cube, or 
some other regular body, the attraction would 
be greatly increased, as each of the particles 
approached and fitted into its proper place. It 
is not contended that the molecules are actually 
attracted into absolutely close contact, because, 
as a matter of fact, they are not. In everj^ sub- 
stance, however hard and solid it might appear 
to be, there are certain interstices between the 
particles which are called pores, the capacities 



SOLDER 191 

of which vary according to peculiar conforma- 
tion of the pnrticles, and the degree of affinity 
which one set of particles may have for others 
in the same mass. It follows then that as a rule 
the hardness or softness of any substance de- 
pends, according to the theoiy of cohesive at- 
traction, upon the close and compact nature of 
the molecules, and the large or small spaces or 
interstices between them, that is, so far as the 
action of heat is concerned. If it is required to 
make a hard substance soft and pliable, some 
power is necessary to exert a reactionary in- 
fluence upon the attractive force which causes 
the particles to cohere. Now the only powers 
that will effectually produce this result is heat, 
when heat is applied to nearly all metallic sub- 
stances, the first thing it does is to enlarge the 
bulk by the almost irresistible force of expan- 
sion. The effect that heat has on a solid is 
to cause the particles to be thrown farther apart 
from each other by a repulsive force, overcoming 
to a certain extent the force of cohesive attrac- 
tion. This repulsive action continues to increase 
as the temperature is raised, until the attractive 
force has to give way to the force of gravity. 

The result is the particles will no longer co- 
here in a mass, but fall away from each other 
and become in a state of fluid, and if they are 
not kept together in a vessel of some kind d^*-- 
ing their high temperature they will run in any 



192 SOLDER 

direction by the influence of gravity like ordi- 
nary liquids. AVlien a metal is in sucli a con- 
dition it is said to be melted or fused. There 
are some metals, zinc for instance, the particles 
of which are separated to a. much greater ex- 
tent than is the case with fusion only. For if 
the heat is applied so that the temperature is 
raised above fusing point, evaporation takes 
place, and the molecules are driven off in the 
form of vapor. 

AVhen two distinct metals are mixed together, 
such as tin and lead, the cohesive attraction is 
modified to a, large extent, because the molecules 
of one have a comparatively small affinity for 
the other. Of course tin has a certain amount of 
affinity for lead, in fact, if there were no affinity 
between the two, solders would be useless on 
lead, because tinning could not be effected if 
such were the case. But what seems certain is. 
when the two metals are alloyed, the molecules 
are not held together by the same attractive force 
that is exerted when a metal is not alloyed, that 
is, the particles of one metal do not, by reason of 
their difference of construction or conformation, 
have the same affinity for each other as they do 
when they are not intermixed with other parti- 
cles of a different nature. 

Consequently, when such combinations of met- 
als are subjected to the action of heat, the par- 
ticles mutually assist each other to separate, and 



SOLDER 193 

gravitate like liquids to a level surface, with a 
much lower degree of temperature than is re- 
quired to obtain the same effect when the metals 
are melted separately. 

Then with regard to wiping solder, it retains 
its fluid and plastic state for a much longer 
time than lead or tin would before they are mix- 
ed, showing that the particles, probably for the 
same reason, do not solidify so quickly as they 
would in a separate state. If they did, joint- 
wiping would, of course, be impossible, for on 
the peculiar power that solder has to retain its 
heat, or rather the effects of heat, depends the 
success of the most important parts of plumbing- 
work. An alloy of lead and tin contracts consid- 
erably in cooling, the result of this can be seen 
when a solder pot is placed on the fire. Before 
the bulk of the solder melts, but as soon as that 
part which is near the hottest part of the fire 
begins to fuse, the molten metal forces its way 
up to the top, between the sides of the mass of 
solder and the sides of the pot, this often con- 
tinues until the top of the unmelted mass is 
covered with a melted layer which has forced its 
way there, showing that when the solder cooled 
it contracted into a smaller space than it occu- 
pied when it was in a fluid state. Consequently, 
when the lower part of the solder is melted first, 
the expansion that takes place forces it of neces- 
sity to the top, because there is not room for the 



194 SOLDER 

increased bulk in the space it was reduced to 
during the process of cooling. But if antimony, 
the fusing point of which is 840 degrees Fahren- 
heit, is added to lead and tin, the result is just 
the reverse, for on cooling this alloy expands. 
The latter alloy is generally used for casting 
types for printing, the proportions of which are 
two of lead, one of antimony, and one of tin, 
although a more expansive alloy is made of 
nine of lead, two of antimony, and one of bis- 
muth. Then with regard to the hardness of 
metals, it is not always that the hardest metals 
require the highest temperature to fuse them. 
Tin, for instance, is much harder than lead, yet 
it fuses at a temperature nearly 200 degrees Fah- 
renheit lower than lead. 



HOW TO MAKE SOLDER. 

Plumber's wiping solder, for use with the 
ladle and the soldering cloth, is made up by 
melting together pure lead and block tin in the 
proportion of 2 pounds of lead to 1 pound of 
tin. Plumber's fine solder is made of about equal 
parts of those two metals. Strip solder— used 
wdth the copper-bit— is made in the proportion 
of 2 pounds of tin to 3 pounds of lead. Gas- 
fitter's solder may be made in the proportion of 
8 pounds of tin to 9 pounds of lead, tinsmith's 
copper-bit solder is 1 pound of lead to 1 pound 
of tin. The proportion of lead and tin may vary 
within certain limits without apparent effort on 
the solder. 

Plumber's wiping solder, when in a bar, 
should have a clean grey appearance, and not be 
dirty-looking. The ends of the bar should be 
bright, and show several tin spots mottled over 
their surfaces. In use, the solder should work 
smooth, and not granular. The tin should not 
separate from the lead on the lower part of the 
joints. One test for the quality of solder is to 
melt it and then pour on to a cold but dry stone 
about the size of a dollar, and take note of the 
color and size and also the number and sizes 

195 



196 HOW TO MAKE SOLDER 

of the spots that appear, but the only reliable 
test is to make a joint and note the ease with 
which it can be worked. For making joints on 
lead pipes copper-bit solder made in thin strips 
is generally used. This is the kind used also 
for soldering zinc. Some plumbers prefer sol- 
der finer, others coarser than the usual average 
which is given above. 

The usual method of making solder is as fol- 
lows: An iron pot is suspended over a coke fire, 
to which enough broken coke is added to bank 
up all round the pot. Sheet-lead cuttings and 
scraps of clean pipe are put into the pot until it 
is rather more than half full. Preference is 
given to pig-lead over sheet, and to new cuttings 
over pipe, because the lead rolled into sheets is 
generally purer than that used for pipe. Some 
pipe is made of old metals which contain lead, 
tin, antimony, arsenic, and zinc, it is inadvis- 
able to put such material in the solder-pot. The 
effect would be to raise the melting point of 
the solder, and in applying it to the joint to be 
soldered it would in all probability partially 
melt the lead. Moreover, the metals named do 
not alloy perfectly, but partake more of the 
nature of a mixture which partially separates 
when making a joint, some metals, especially 
zinc, show as small bright lumps on the surface. 
Joints made with such solder, which usually is 
called poisoned metal, are difficult to form, and 



HOW TO MAKE SOLDER 197 

they usually leak when in water pipes. The ap- 
pearance of such joints is a dirty grey, instead 
of bright and clean as when pure solder is used. 
From this it is clear that in making solder great 
care must be taken to exclude zinc from the pot. 
Zinc, lead, and tin do not alloy well, lead will 
unite with only 1.6 per cent of zinc, and above 
that proportion the metals are only mixed when 
melted, and on cooling partially separate. 

Sufficient lead having been melted in the pot, 
about y2 pound of lump sulphur, broken into 
pieces about the size of hickory nuts, is added, 
and the whole well stirred with a ladle, the sul- 
phur unites with zinc and other impurities. The 
resultant sulphides are skimmed off in the form 
of a cake, more sulphur being added so long a? 
sulphides continue to form. The bowl of the 
ladle, in the intervals of stirring, should be laid 
on the fire, to burn off any adherent sulphur. 
When sulphide ceases to be formed, a handful 
of resin is thrown into the pot, and the lead 
stirred. When the resin has burned, the lead is 
again skimmed, and a piece of tallow about the 
size of a hen^s egg is put into the pot, the lead 
being again stirred and skimmed. In stirring 
the lead it is lifted up and poured back by the 
ladleful, a larger amount of lead being thus 
exposed to the action of the cleaning material. 

Best block tin is now added in the required 
proportion, and after the molten mass has been 



198 HOW TO MAKE SOLDER 

well stirred a little of tlie mixture should be run 
on to a stone to test its fineness. If it appears 
too coarse more tin is added, if too fine, more 
sheet-lead. Finally, a little resin and tallow 
having been added, the solder is skimmed and is 
then ready for use or for pouring into moulds. 
AVlien i3lumber's solder is heated in an open 
pot, the surface exposed to the air combines with 
oxygen, and on heating to redness, the combina- 
tion takes place more readily. The tin melts 
at a lower temperature than lead, and so its 
specific gravity is lighter, floats when melted, 
and so the solder becomes poorer when too 
highly heated, owing tO' the tin's oxidation. If 
the dross is melted with a flux, or with pow- 
dered charcoal, which will combine with the 
oxygen, the solder will again become fit for use, 
but it is sometimes necessary to add a little 
more tin. 

Burning the solder must be carefully avoided. 
A pot of solder after it has been red-hot has 
always a quantity of dross or dirt collected on 
the top. This is principally oxide of tin and 
oxide of lead, the tin and lead having united 
with the oxygen in the atmosphere to form ox- 
ides of these metals. Lead being roughly 50 
per cent heavier than tin, the tendency is for 
the tin in the molten mixture to form the upper 
layer of the solder— the part most exposed to 
the action of the atmosphere. When the solder 



HOW TO MAKE SOLDER 199 

becomes red-hot^ there is therefore more tin 
burned than lead. Hence the solder becomes too 
coarse, and more tin must be added. Zinc is 
the greatest trouble to the solder pot. Great 
care has to be taken to exclude it, or to get it 
out. It may get into the solder from a piece of 
zinc, having been put into the pot by mistake 
for lead, but more commonly brass, which is an 
alloy of copper and zinc, is the source of the 
zinc that poisons the pot, into which brass filings 
find their way whilst brass is being prepared 
for tinning. If the filing is done at the same 
bench as the wiping, splashes of metal may fall 
on the filings, which will adhere, and thus get 
into the pot. Solder that is poisoned by arsenic 
or antimony is beyond the plumber's skill to 
clean, but zinc can be extracted by stirring in 
powdered sulphur when the solder is in a semi- 
molten condition, and then melting the whole, 
when the combined sulphur and zinc will rise 
to the surface, and can be taken off in the form 
of a cake, the solder being left in good condition 
for use. 



SOLDERING FLUXES. 

Tlie flux ordinarily used for plumber's wiping 
solder is tallow, generally in the form of a 
candle. No other flnxes answer this purpose so 
well, as they all spoil the wiping cloths, but dif- 
ferent kinds of fluxes are required for different 
kinds of work. For a wiped joint, a tallow 
candle is rubbed over the parts. This is often 
used in making copper-bit joints, though for this 
latter purpose many plumbers prefer to use 
black rosin. Muriatic acid is employed as a flux 
for use when soldering, the acid — which is a 
powerful poison— being used for zinc or galvan- 
ized iron, and the killed acid for other metals, 
such as brass, tinplate, copper, wrought-iron, 
etc. 

After tinning brass with fine solder, the cop- 
per-bit should be wiped quite clean, as the cop- 
per, uniting with some of the zinc in the brass, 
may affect the wiping solder. Some plumbers 
tin brass by holding it over the metal pot and 
pouring the solder on to it. This is bad prac- 
tice, as the surplus solder, and any zinc with 
which it may have combined, fall into the pot. 
In cleaning solder, the sulphur must be used 

200 



SOLDEllING FLUXES 201 

with more care than when cleaning lead, or the 
tin will be burnt out as well as the zinc. 

The method ordinarily adopted by plumbers 
for tinning iron is to file it bright and then coat 
the part with killed acid or chloride of zinc, or 
muriatic acid in which zinc has been dissolved, 
and then dip it into molten plumber's solder. 
Sometimes sal-ammoniac is used for the flux, or 
a mixture of sal-ammoniac and chloride of zinc. 
When wrought-iron pipes have been thus tinned, 
and then soldered joints made^ they have been 
found to come apart after a few years, the pipe 
ends, when pulled from the solder, being found 
to be rusty. Although more difficult to accom- 
plish, iron pipe ends filed and covered with resin, 
and then "plunged into molten solder, from the 
surface of which all dross has been skimmed, 
and afterwards soldered together, have been 
known to last a considerable time. When tin- 
ning the pipes or making the joints, the solder 
must not be overheated, or failure will result. 



PREPARING WIPED JOINTS. 

One objection that is often raised to wiped 
joints is that they are too expensive, and re- 
quire a large quantity of solder. Another is that 
they take up too much time, and when they are 
made they are said to be ugly, and have been 
described as a ^'ball of solder round a pipe.'^ 
It seems verj^ unfortunate that plumbers' work 
should be judged by its worst specimens, but, 
probably, this course of action is justified by 
the principle that the strength of the chain is 
limited to its weakest link. There is no doubt 
that if joints are carefully prepared and prop- 
erly wiped the above objections would be 
groundless, and that for good substantial work 
there is no other kind of joint that is more 
suitable for the purpose. 

In the process of making wiped joints no part 
is no important as the preparation. A joint 
may be wiped as nicely and as regularly as pos- 
sible, but if the ends are not properly prepared 
and fitted, it will very often happen that the 
joint will leak by sweating, as it is called, the 
solder is generally supposed to be the cause, 
but more often it is the fault of the imperfect 
preparation of the ends of the pipe. "We will 

202 



PREPARING WIPED JOINTS 203 

suppose, for instance, an upright joint on an 
inch service pipe. Fig. 229 is a. sketch showing 
the way a joint of this kind is usually prepared. 
Very often one end barely enters the other, no 
care is taken to see that the ends fit properly 
together, and any space that may be left be- 
tween the two ends is closed up with a hammer. 
As to shaving inside the socket end, this is 
thought quite unnecessary, if not a fault, for 
some think if the socket end is shaved inside, 
it will induce the solder to run through and 
partly fill up the pipe. There is no doubt it 
would do so if the ends do not fit; but that is 
just the thing that is most important, not only 
as regards the solder getting inside the pipe, but 
on it depends, to a very large extent, the sound- 
ness of the joint. 

The general idea is that if the two ends of a 
pipe are shaved and placed together, and a piece 
of solder stuck round them, that is all that is 
required to make a joint. If the solder is not so 
fine as it ought to be, it is the cause of most of 
the leaky joints, and very often the joints are 
found broken right across the center, more es- 
pecially in the case of joint on hot- water, service, 
and waste pipes. It has been remarked 
that the solder is generally blamed for all the 
failures. It is either too coarse or too cold, or 
else it must have got a piece of zinc in it. Other- 
wise, if the joint is made tO' brasswork, it is that 



204 PREPARING WIPED JOINTS 

which has poisoned the solder. In short, every- 
thing gets blamed except the right cause. 

It must not be supposed that joint-wiping can 
be taught by books. This can only be accom- 
plished in the workshop or on a plumbing job. 
But as practice is very often greatly assisted by 
precept, probably a few hints on the matter of 
joint-wiping will be helpful to many who have 
not the opportunities to gain a very large or 
varied experience. In preparing a joint similar 
to the one mentioned, after the two ends are 
carefully straightened, the spigot, or what is 
generally called the male end, should be first 
rasped square, and then tapered with a fine rasp 
quite half an inch back from the end. A fine 
rasp is mentioned because the rasps that are 
used by many plumbers are far too coarse to 
properly rasp the ends of pipes. Generally the 
very coarse rasps are used, it is difficult to say 
why, except it is that they are cheaper than the 
fine rasps, but if the advantages of a fine rasp 
be taken into account, the extra cost would not 
be considered. 

"When preparing the ends of the pipe, great 
care should be taken to avoid the raspings get- 
ting into the pipes, these cause no end of time 
and trouble when they get into valves and other 
fittings, after the pipes are filled with water. 

As a rule, it is the back stroke of the rasp 
that throws the raspings inside the pipe, espe- 



PREPARING WIPED JOINTS 205 

cially wlien the pipe is being rasped horizontally, 
or with the end of the pipe pointing upwards. 
If possible, when the ends are being rasped, they 
should either be pointing in a downward direc- 
tion, or else the rasp should not be allowed to 
touch the pipe in its backward stroke. Some 
plumbers place a wad or stopper in the end of 
a pipe when it is being rasped; this is a very 
good precaution to take, providing it is not for- 
gotten and left in the pipe. After the spigot 
end has been rasped, it should be soiled about 
six inches long, but no farther towards the end 
than an inch from the rasped edge. Sometimes 
the soiling is taken right up to the end, but this 
is not a good plan, because, if it is soiled over 
the rasped edge, the shave-hook does not always 
take the soil out of the rasp marks, a point 
which is most important; and as it is quite un- 
necessary to soil farther than the line of shaving, 
the soil at the end is quite superfluous. Many 
plumbers soil the ends before they rasp them 
with the same object in view, but this is not a 
good plan, because very often in rasping the 
ends, the end of the rasp is likely to scratch the 
soiling, making it necessary to touch up the soil- 
ing again. 

If the soil is good it is an advantage to rub it, 
after it is dry, with a piece of carpet or a hard 
brush, a dry felt will do. This makes the sur- 
face of the soil smooth and more durable, and 



206 PREPARING WIPED JOINTS 

not so likely to flake off when the joint is wiped. 
The best soil is made from vegetable black and 
diluted glue with a little sugar, and finely 
ground chalk added. The proportion of the in- 
gredients depends to a large extent on their 
quality. Lamp black and size are generally used, 
but if the black is not very good it is very diffi- 
cult to make soil fit for use, it will rub or peel 
oft* and become a nuisance. Good soil, and a 
properly made soil pot and tool, are indispensa- 
ble to a plumber who wishes to turn out a good 
quality of work. Any makeshift does for a 
soil pot with a great many plumbers. Some 
use an old milk-can or a saucepan. It is much 
better to have a good copper pot, with a handle. 
Most plumbers should be able to make a soil 
pot with a piece of sheet copper, otherwise a 
coppersmith would make one for a small sum. 
Before soiling the end of the pipe, it is always a 
good plan to chalk it well. This will counteract 
the effects of the grease that is nearly always 
found on the surface of new lead pipes. If the 
pipe is very greasy, it is still better to scour 
it well with a piece of card-wire before it is 
chalked and soiled. The scouring is not always 
necessary, but it is always best to carry a piece 
of card-wire in case of need. 

When the end of the pipe has been properly 
soiled, it should be shaved the length required, 
tlv\t is, about half an inch longer than half the 



PREPARING WIPED JOINTS 207 

length of the joint, thus allowing half an inch 
for socketing into the other end. Grease, or 
^ ^ touch, '^ as it is called by plumbers, should 
immediately be rubbed over the shaved part to 
prevent oxidation. The socket end of the pipe 
should now be rasped square and opened with a 
long tapered tumpin— a short stumpy tumpin 
is not a proper tool for this purpose, although 
many of this kind are used. After rasping the 
edge of the pipe, the rasped part should be par- 
allel with the side of the pipe, as shown at Fig. 
228. It is not at all necessary for the edge of 
the socket end to project, nor to reduce the bore 
of the pipe in the joint; but if the ends are pre- 
pared, as shown at Figs. 229 and 230, it would 
be necessary to open the socket end an extra- 
ordinary width to get the same depth of socket, 
and then a much larger quantity of solder would 
be required to cover the edge, which would make 
the shape of the joint look ugly, and not make 
such a reliable joint either. 

When the socket end is properly fitted, it 
should be soiled and shaved half the length of 
the intended joint. The inside of the socket 
should also be shaved about half an inch down 
and touched. 

If the solder is used at a proper heat and 
splashed on quickly, so as to well sweat the sol- 
der in between the two surfaces where the ends 
are socketed, the joint is made, so far as the 



208 



PKEPARING WIPED JOINTS 



soundness is concerned, independent of the wip- 
ing or the form and shape of the solder when 
it is finished. In fact, if a joint is prepared in 
a proper manner, it would be sound in most in- 
stances if the solder was wiped bare to the 
edge of the socket end. Of course, it would not 




Pig. 228. 




Fig. 229. 



Fig. 230. 



be advisable to do this, but still, a joint should 
and could be quite independent of the very large 
quantity of solder that is frequently used. But 
when a large amount of solder is seen on a joint, 
it can generally be taken for granted that the 
plumber that made it, when he prepared the 



PREPARING WIPED JOINTS 209 

ends, took great pains to close nj^ the edge of 
the socket end to the sjDigot end so that it fitted 
tight, so tight was this edge, that it prevented 
the slightest particle of solder getting in be- 
tween. The consequence very often is, that if 
the plumber is not quick at wiping the joint, and 
keeps the solder moving until it is nearly cold, 
or at least cold enough to set, the whole of the 
solder on the joint will be in a state of porous- 
ness, or, in other words, instead of the solder 
cooling into a compact mass, the contin- 
ual moving of it by the act of wiping 
causes the particles, as they become crystal- 
lized by cooling, to be disturbed and partially 
disintegrated. The result is, that under a mod- 
erate pressure the water will percolate through 
the joint and cause what is generally termed 
*' sweating.-' Very often it is rather more than 
sweating, it can more correctly be compared to- 
water running through a sieve. Under some con- 
ditions it is not a very easy matter to prevent 
this sweating, especially if the solder is very 
coarse, or is poisoned by zinc or other delete- 
rious matters. The gi'eat advantage of leaving 
the socket end open is, that if the solder is used 
at a good heat, as it always should be when it 
is splashed on, it runs into the socket at such a 
heat that, when it cools, it sets much firmer than 
that part of the solder which has been disturbed 
by the forming of the joint. 



JOINT-WIPING. 

Joint-wiping forms an important branch in the 
art of plumbing. It is a part of the work which 
requires more care, skill and practice than any 
of the other branches, and on it depends the 
success or failure of some of the most particu- 
lar jobs in sanitary plumbing. Many serious 
cases of disease have been traced to bad joint- 
wiping. It is not expected that a joint can un- 
der all conditions, be as perfectly symmetrical 
and well proportioned as if it had been turned 
in a lathe. The best workmen have to leave 
joints that they would be ashamed of, as far as 
the appearance is concerned, if they were made 
on the bench or in some convenient place. There 
are too many who seem to think that sound work 
is good work, and therefore never try to make 
their work look as creditable as it should. The 
different styles of joint-wiping are so numerous, 
that one could go to any length describing the 
many eccentricities and peculiarities that are 
displayed in this particular branch of the trade. 
Of course every one has his own peculiar ideas 
in most matters, and no person does a thing ex- 
actly like another. 

After a helper has been at the trade for a 

210 



JOINT-WIPING 211 

short time, liis one great ambition is to wipe a 
joint. He seems to tliink that if he can only 
manage to get a small portion of solder to ad- 
here to a piece of pipe, and then so manipulate 
it as to induce it to take the form of an egg or 
a turnip, as the case may be, he has done some- 
thing to be proud of, and soon begins to think 
he ought to be a full-blown plumber. Another 
question with regard to joints is the proper 
lengths to make them. Some like long joints, 
others prefer short ones. The advocates of long- 
joints say that short joints are ugly, and are not 
proportionate. They are often compared to tur- 
nips, and other things not quite so regular in 
shape. Those who are in favor of short joints 
say the long ones are not so sound, that they 
will not stand a great pressure, and are liable 
to sweat. It is ridiculous to make joints of 
enormous lengths, when a joint made more in 
proportion to the diameter of the pipe would not 
only be much stronger, but would look far neat- 
er, and generally require less solder. Then there 
is the question of wiping-cloths. A great many 
plumbers like a very thick cloth for wiping 
joints, but, on the other hand, as many more 
say they cannot wipe joints with thick cloths. 
Many plumbers who are used to thick cloths 
and can wipe joints as easily as possible, are 
quite beaten if they try to use thin cloths. The 
difference in the thickness of cloths is very great 



212 JOINT-WIPING 

in some cases. Very thin cloths are not suitable 
for making joints a nice shape. When a plumb- 
er gets used to a reasonably thick cloth he can 
make joints far better and easier than if he used 
thin ones. Generally, plumbers who use thin 
cloths make joints very short and lumpy, and 
bare at the ends, so that the shaving is shown 
about an eighth to three-eights from the ends. 
But when thicker cloths are used it is much 
easier to make joints more like the proper shape. 
This is very important in all joint- wiping, be- 
cause wherever the shaving is left bare, the pipe 
is weaker here than any other part, whereas, 
if a joint is properly made, this part of it should 
be the strongest. In a large number of in- 
stances, when a pipe is subject to much expan- 
sion and contraction, it will break at this weak 
point very soon after it is fixed. It would be 
difficult to say generally what should be a proper 
thickness for cloths, excepting that they should 
be in proportion to the width and length. Clotiis 
for large joints should be much thicker than 
those used for small ones, because the larger the 
cloth is, the more difficult it is to keep it in the 
shape required for wiping the joint. If a cloth 
used for making a four-inch joint were made of 
onlv about six thicknesses of moleskin, it 
would be no more, or at least but little more, use 
than one generally used for three-quarter or one- 
inch joints, because when a small amount of sol- 



JOINT-WIPING 213 

der falls on it, the cloth would bend down and 
Jet the solder fall, so that the solder would not 
remain in the cloth except that caught in the 
middle, where the hand is under it. Conse- 
quently^ there is much difficulty in getting up 
the great heat necessary to make a large joint. 
Then supposing it were possible to get up the 
heat sufficient to wipe the joint, it is useless to 
try to make the point as regular as would be the 
case if moderately thick cloth were used. The 
reason is, that when the cloth is hot it gives too 
much to the pressure of each finger, and there- 
fore presses unequally on the surface of the 
joint, making it either bare at the edges and 
showing the tinning, or causing the body of the 
joint to be irregular and bad in shape, more es- 
pecially at the bottom where it is nearly bare. 

A cloth should be just thick enough to prevent 
the impression of the fingers having any in- 
fluence on the body of the joint, but at the same 
time it should be thin enough to allow it to be 
bent the shape required without any great exer- 
tion. A cloth cannot be employed like a mould 
used by a plasterer to mould a cornice, if it 
could, it would not be so difficult, and require 
so much practice to make a joint as it does. Al- 
though there can be no doubt that suitable tools 
are indispensable to the workman, yet it must 
be remembered, by plumbers especially, that the 
cloth, however well made both in size and shape, 



214 JOINT-WIPING 

will not make a joint without it is manipulated 
by an intelligent and experienced hand. 

Wiping Horizontal Joints. In the making of 
wiped joints one of the greatest mistakes that is 
generally made is that of using too thin cloths. 
It is very difficult, if not altogether impossible, 
to make a good shaped joint with* a thin cloth. 
The joints shown at A and B in Fig. 231 are 




Fig. 231. 



the kind of joint generally made with a thin 
cloth. By thin cloths are meant about five 
thicknesses of moleskin or ticking. Ticking, 



JOINT-WIPING 215 

however, is not nearly so suitable for the pur- 
pose as moleskin. Another objection to the use 
of thin cloths is their liability to get hot too 
quickly. Before the joint is finished it is al- 
most impossible to hold the cloth on account of 
the intense heat. A cloth suitable to make a 
good wiped joint should consist of about eight 
thicknesses of moleskin. The width of a good 
cloth should be about an inch longer than the 
joint, and the length about the same or perhaps 
a little longer. 

It will not be found a good plan to fold up the 
cloth out of one piece of material, as when the 
folds are at the sides, it is difficult to make the 
cloth bend as is required when in use. The bet- 
ter plan is to cut the cloth into pieces, of twice 
the length and exactly the same width as the 
cloth is required to be when finished. These 
should be folded once and then sewn together at 
the edge as shown in Fig. 232. To those who 
are in the habit of using thin cloths it will no 
doubt be found rather awkward at first to use 
thick ones, but a little practice will show that 
they are much more convenient to use and will 
turn out a better shaped joint as shown at C in 
Fig. 231. Thin cloths after they are hot get 
out of shape and give toO' much, with the result 
that the edges of the joint are often wiped bare. 
Another and veiy important advantage of thick 
cloths is that the joints may be made much. 



216 



JOINT-WIPING 



lighter, as it does not necessarily follow that be- 
cause a large amount of solder is used on a joint 
it is any more sound or stronger than a lighter 
one. 

When the solder on the joint is at such a heat 
as to make it difficult to keep it on the pipe, it 
should be patted round with the cloth, and the 




Fig. 232. 

surplus solder on the edges wiped off. The 
cloth should now be taken in the right hand, as 
shown in Fig. 233^ and the wiping commenced 
at the back of the joint. While drawing the cloth 
upwards, the forefinger should be used to clean 
the edge nearest to it, after which the little 
finger should be used to clean the other edge. 
As soon as the edges are clean, the body of the 



JOINT-WIPING 



217 



joint can be formed with tlie middle of tlie clotli. 
Tlien take the cloth in the left hand, and push- 
ing the surplus solder downwards, clean the out- 
side edges of the joint with the fore and little 
fingers. Now take the cloth in the middle of 
the right hand, pressing equally with each finger 
so that the cloth touches the whole length of 
the joint, wipe round as far as is convenient 
with the right hand, then change quickly to the 




Fig. 233. 

left hand and continue the wiping under the 
joint to the other side. It may be sometimes 
necessary to wipe the joint round this Avay two 
or even three times before it is smooth and 
clean, but it is much the better way to avoid 
wiping the surface more than is necessary. The 
sooner a joint is left alone after it is formed, 
the better it will be, both for looks and reliabil- 
ity. 
Wiping Upright Joints. When wiping an up- 



218 



JOINT-WIPING 



right joint as shown in Fig. 234, it is better to 
proceed by stages than to try to wipe the joint 
all at once. The first stage is to pour on the 
metal and tin the joint, that is, cause a film of 
solder to alloy with the surface of the pipe. 




Fig. 234. 



When the above described operation has been 
performed, the iron should be made hot, and 
the joint should be splashed by means of the 
splash-stick, until the pipe is hot enough and 



JOINT-WIPING 219 

sufficient solder is on it to allow of tlie wiping 
cloth to be nsecl. Great care should be used in 
melting the solder, if allowed to get red-hot the 
solder deteriorates. The soldering-iron should 
be heated to the right temperature and the bit 
filed clean and bright. The solder should first 
be splashed on the shaved portion of the pipe 
and then on about two inches of the soiled part 
at each end of the pipe. The cloth should al- 
ways be held under the place where the solder 
is being splashed on, to catch the surplus solder. 
As the solder runs down the sides of the x^ip^ 
and is caught in the cloth, it is pressed up 
against the pipe to keep up the heat and also 
to tin the pipe. 

As soon as the pipe has been well tinned, the 
solder should be formed into the shape of a 
joint. Begin at the top of the joint, and with 
the hot iron in one hand and the cloth in the 
other, rub the iron over the solder on the joint 
and wipe round with the cloth quickly and 
lightly, working downwards until the joint is 
finished. When the joint has partially cooled, 
it may be cleansed and brightened by rubbing it 
over with tallow and wiping off with a clean 
soft rag. 

Wiping Branch Joints. Fig. 235 shows a 
badly shaped joint that is often made by the 
use of a thin cloth, while Fig. 236 shows a joint 
that may be much more readily made by the 



220 



JOINT-WIPING 



use of a thick cloth. When everything is ready 
and the solder is at a suitable heat, it should be 
splashed on very carefully while at the same 
time the pipe should be warmed for a few inches 





Fig. 235. 



each side of the joint with the solder. When 
the solder on the joint is at such a heat as to 
make it difficult to keep it on the pipe with con- 
tinually drawing it up, take a small clean iron 



JOINT-WIPING 



221 



at a dull red heat, and start wiping at one end 
of the joint. Carefully form the sides of the 
joint and wipe the solder as hot as possible by 
the continual application of the iron before each 





Fig. 236. 



part of the joint is wiped. Finish the joint at 
the same end as it was started by drawing the 
wipe-off to the outside edge of the joint. 



222 JOINT-WIPING 

A lead pipe can be wiped to a cast iron pipe 
with a fair amount of ease, but the joint will not 
stand satisfactorily. Tlie best way is to file clean 
the end of the cast-iron pipe and then coat it 
with pure tin, using sal-ammoniac as a flux. The 
pipe is then washed to remove the sal-ammoniac, 
and afterwards re-tinned, using resin and grease 
as a flux. A plumber's joint, 3% inches long for 
4-inch pipes, is then wiped in the usual way. 
Great pains will have to be taken to make a good, 
sound, strong joijit between the two metals. Nev- 
ertheless, in the course of time, it may be only a 
few years, the cast iron will come out of the 
solder. The first sign of decay will be a red ring 
of iron rust showing at the end of the joint. This 
rust will swell a little and cause the end of the 
soldering to curl slightly outwards. Eventually 
the rust will creep between the solder and the 
iron and destroy the adhesion of the one to the 
other. Only those metals that alloy together can 
be satisfactorily joined by soft soldering, and the 
solder should contain as great a, proportion as 
possible of the metals that are to be united. The 
joint would, if out of doors, be subjected to tem- 
peratures ranging over 90° Fahrenheit, under 
such conditions the solder would expand .001251 
inch, and the iron would expand .000549 inch, or 
less than half as much as the solder. The joint 
would therefore eventually become a loose ring 
on the iron pipe, but not on the lead pipe, as the 



JOINT-WIPING 223 

expansion of lead and solder do* not differ ma- 
terially. 

Numerous experiments have been tried for 
overcoming the difficulty of wiping joints on or- 
dinary tin-lined pipes, but the only method which 
has been found to approach success has been to 
insert a long nipple of tinned sheet iron, this 
method, however, has not been wholly successful 
with the ordinary make of tinned pipe. How- 
ever, on a new kind of tin-lined pipe, wiped joints 
can be made very easily, without the tin lining 
melting. 

It would often be a convenience if copper pipes 
could be united satisfactorily by wiping, but 
plumbers' wiped joints are of no use with cop- 
per tube, for the expansion and contraction will 
not permit them to remain sound, as many hot- 
water engineers know to their cost, brazed joints 
would be satisfactory, though troublesome to 
make. If copper pipe is thick enough to be 
threaded, have the fittings threaded also, and 
screw them together the same as with iron pipe, 
except that with long runs there must be expan- 
sion joints or other provision made for expan- 
sion. Even when a wiped joint on copper pipes 
is strongly made by sweating on a sleeve and 
then wiping a joint over the whole, it is doubt- 
ful if it would be permanent. It is very prob- 
able that electrolysis would set in, if the pipe is 
in damp ground. However, should circumstances 



224 JOINT-WIPING 

suggest tliat a wiped joint might answer, the 
'.\^ork is done as described below. 

Wiped joints on copper pipes are longer than 
wiped joints on lead pipes. Copper pipes 2 inches 
or more in diameter have joints from 3% to 4 
inches long, 4-inch pipes have joints about 5 
inches long, but it must be remembered that 
whilst reasonable length and thickness of joint 
are necessary to enable the copper pipe to with- 
stand pressure and strain, the maximum time of 
service does not depend on the length or thick- 
ness of the joint as in lead pipe work. That 
which determines practically the life of the joint 
is the extent of pipe which is carefully tinned 
before making the wiped joint. If the interiors 
of the two pipe ends are tinned, say, for 6 to 8 
inches, if the joint is cut open, in a few years' 
time, it is found that the tiiming has diminished 
to 2 or 3 inches, a corroding action having taken 
place at the end of the tinning, for this reason 
it is advisable that the tinning be fairly thick, 
so as to retard the separation and ultimate fail- 
ure of the joint. In tinning copper, first thor- 
oughly clean it with dilute sulphuric acid or 
scour with saiid and water, and then rinse it 
with chloride of zinc, known as killed spirits. 
Melt some pure tin, throw in sal-ammoniac as a 
flux, and dip the copper in the tin, or pour or rub 
the latter over the copper. In pipes forming a 
portion of a distillery plant it is especially im- 



JOINT-WIPING 225 

portant that untinned spots are not left on the 
interiors of the pipe ends, as at such spots the 
destruction of the tinning commences at once. 
The pipe is strengthened by putting one pipe 
within the other, and the corrosion of tlie tinning 
is arrested when it reaches the lap. If sufficient 
lap is given, the pipe may be handled before the 
joint is wiped — a great convenience. The pipe 
ends are placed together, when practicable, over 
the iron pot containing the molten solder, which 
is then poured continuously over the joint until 
a heat is got -up. This practice is not possible 
with lead or brass pipes, because in the one case 
the lead would melt, and in the other the molten 
zinc would leave the brass and ruin the solder. 
When the pipes cannot be moved, a shovel is 
placed beneath the joint and the solder poured 
on rapidly. When a thorough heat has been ob- 
tained, the joint can be wiped, with the aid of a 
cloth and of the mushy solder from the shovel, in 
much the same way as a joint on a lead pipe is 
wiped. 



AUTOGENOUS SOLDERING OR LEAD 
BURNING. 

The art of lead burning has for many years 
been kept quite distinct from plumbing gener- 
ally, it is nevertheless a branch of the trade, and 
one in which large numbers of plumbers are be- 
coming very proficient. There is not required a 
large amount of skill or ingenuity in the execu^ 
tion of lead buiTiing, because, as a matter of 
fact, when it is compared with first-class plumb- 
ing, it is not nearly so difficult to acquire. In 
most cases where lead burning was considered 
necessary, such for instance as lining large 
tanks in chemical factories especially for the 
manufacture of sulphuric acid, the lead was 
simply used in large sheets fixed with tacks to 
wooden framework and the edges burned to- 
gether. Of late years, however, this method of 
burning the edges of lead together has been 
adopted for numerous other purposes, such as 
the lining of sinks for chemical laboratories, and 
lining cisterns in cases where the water attacks 
the solder. 

The modem term for lead burning is ^^auto- 
genous soldering. '^ The word ^'autogenous" is 
rather an ugly one, and somewhat difficult to 

226 



AUTOGENOUS SOLDERING 227 

define, it pertains to the word ^ * autogeneal, " 
which means ^^self-begotten or generating it- 
self/' neither of which is very appropriate to 
the process of lead burning. In fact the latter 
term is not strictly applicable, because the lead 
is not burnt, it is only fused. The most suitable 
teim would be ^'fusing process. '^ Instead of 
saying ^'the seams are burned, '^ it would be 
better to say ^'the seams are fused,'' as this 
would correctly describe the action that takes 
place. 

The simplest kind of lead burning is that 
known as flat seams, and which as a rule is the 
only kind that plumbers are likely to make use 
of. Professional lead burners of course are re- 
quired to burn seams in many different ways, 
even horizontal seams overhead are sometimes 
necessary. When the seams of sinks and cisterns 
have to be burned, the joints should always be 
arranged about 6 inches from the angles. Be- 
cause if the seams are arranged in the angles 
the flame of the blow-pipe is likely to catch the 
surface of the lead at the side and bum them 
through before the seam is formed. It is best 
also to butt the edges of the lead and not to 
lap them. Then when each edge has been shav- 
ed about a quarter of an inch wide, take a strip 
of shaved lead about half an inch wide and di- 
rect the flame on the end until a drop is melted 
and falls on the seam, at the same time the flame 



228 AUTOGENOUS SOLDERING 

should be directed towards the part of the seam 
to be burned, for the purpose of heating it. 
Then cause the flame to play upon the small 
drop of lead until that and the lead upon which 
it rests are fused, then draw up the flame quick- 
ly. This operation, owing to the intense heat 
of the airo-hydrogen flame, occupies much less 
time than it takes to describe it. So that the 
operator has to be quick in manipulating the 
blast if he wishes to avoid burning the lead over 
a much larger space than is desirable. It must 
not be supposed that a flowing seam like that 
produced by a copper-bit and fine solder can be 
formed by the burning process, this, under the 
circumstances, is not possible. Each wave has 
to be formed separately by a distinct applica- 
tion of the flame. The regularity of these waves 
will depend partly upon the skill of the opera- 
tor, partly upon the quality of the blast and on 
the purity of the lead upon which it is being used. 
But like most other mechanical operations pro- 
ficiency has to be attained by practice and ex- 
perience. When it is found necessary to burn 
seams on the vertical side of a cistern, the lap is 
generally arranged i-n a slanting direction for 
the purpose of forming a ledge for the drops of 
molten lead to rest upon until they are fused 
into the seam, which is formed of a series of 
drops, instead of waves. A similar appearance 



AUTOGENOUS SOLDERING 229 

is obtained when seams are burned on an up- 
right side of a cistern in a horizontal line. 

Another very convenient way to produce a 
good flame for lead burning is to use compressed 
oxygen and coal gas. The oxygen can be obtain- 
ed in steel bottles, this, being discharged under 
great pressure, is used for the blast instead of 
air, a bellows is therefore unnecessary. 

When it is stated that a small sized blow-pipe 
of this kind with a. supply of oxygen at the rate 
of 7 cubic feet per hour, and a gas supply 
through a quarter-inch pipe, will fuse a quarter- 
inch wrought-iron rod easily, the intense heat 
of the flame can be somewhat realized. Probably 
the oxygen method of burning would be rather 
costly where only small jobs of lead burning are 
occasionally required, but where there is a con- 
siderable amount to do the compressed oxygen 
would be far more preferable to the cumber- 
some and often troublesome hydrogen machine. 

There is yet another method which has been 
adopted to a very large extent for lead burning, 
namely the lise of a red-hot hatchet copper-bit. 

The seam is placed, in the case of a pipe, on 
an iron mandrel, or if a flat seam, on an iron 
plate, and the hot copper-bit is drawn through, 
slowly fusing the lead together as it goes. A 
core or bed of sand will also answer the pur- 
pose. 

It is, of course, a rough and residy way of 



230 AUTOGENOUS SOLDERING 

doing the work, and it involves a large amount 
of time and labor in cleaning off the seams. But 
it is nevertheless effectual, and, where more skil- 
ful means are not at hand, it often serves the 
purpose in a rough way. It would not, however, 
do for general application, in fact, in numerous 
instances where lead burning is required, it 
would not be at all practicable. 

In conclusion, it may be well to point out that 
the idea of substituting the burning system for 
soldering generally in plumbers' work is not at 
all likely to be an accomplished fact. It is all 
very well for special purposes, but the art of 
soldering in the modem style is too well estab- 
lished to be ever superseded by the compara^ 
tively inartistic methods of lead fusing. Not 
only is lead burning not so attractive or so sub- 
stantial in appearance as soldering, but it is not 
nearly so well adapted to general plumbers' 
work, and there does not at present seem any 
probability of it ever becoming a successful com- 
petitor. 



PROPERTIES OF WATER. 

A tasteless, transparent, inodorous, liquid, 
almost incompressible, its absolute diminution be- 
ing about one twenty-tliousandtli of its bulk, pos- 
sesses the liquid form only, at temperatures be- 
tween thirty-two degrees and two hundred and 
twelve Fahrenheit. Chemically considered, it is 
a compound substance of hydrogen and oxygen, 
two volumes of hydrogen to one volume of oxy- 
gen. Water is the most powerful and universal 
solvent known. 

The gallon is the unit of measure for water. 
The unit of water pressure is the pound per 
square inch, one gallon of water measures .134 
cubic feet and contains 231 cubic inches and 
weighs about eight and one-third pounds, or sixty- 
two and one-third pounds per cubic foot. 

The above is figured at sixty-two degrees 
Fahrenheit, which is taken as a standard temper- 
ature. 

The weight of a column of water of one inch 
area and twelve inches high, at sixty-two degrees 
Fahrenheit is .433 pounds, on 

.433x144=62.35 pounds per cubic foot. 

The pressure of still water, in pounds, per 
square inch, against the side of any pipe or ves- 

231 



232 PROPERTIES OF WATER 

sel, of any shape whatever, is equal in all direc- 
tions, downwards, upwards or sideways. To find 
the pressure in pounds, per square inch, of a col- 
umn of water, multiply the height of the column 
in feet, by .433, approximately one foot of eleva- 
tion, is equal to one half-pound pressure per 
square inch. 

The head is the vertical distance between the 
level surface of still water and the height in the 
pipe, unless caused by pressure such as by a 
pump, etc. Water pressure is measured in 
pounds per square inch, above atmospheric press- 
ure, by means of a pressure gauge. To ascertain 
the height water will rise, at any given pressure, 
divide the gauge pressure by .433; the result is 
the height in feet. 

Example: The pressure gauge on a supply 
pipe in a basement shows 25 pounds pressure. 
To what height will water rise in the piping 
throughout the building? 

Answer: 25^.433=571/2 feet. 

Wliile water will rise to this height, sufficient 
head should be provided to furnish a surplus head 
of about ten feet above the highest point of de- 
livery, to insure a respectable velocity of dis- 
charge. 

It is frequently desired to know what number 
of pipes of a given size is equal in carrying ca- 
pacity to one pipe of a larger size. At the same 



PROPERTIES OF WATER 233 

velocity of flow, tlie volume delivered by two 
pipes of a different size is proportionate to the 
square of their diameters, thus: A four-inch pipe 
will deliver the same volume as four two-inch 
pipes. 

Example: 

2 inches X 2 inches= 4 square inches. 

4 inches X 4 inches=16 square inches. 

16 inches-^4 inches= 4 2-incli pipes. 

With the same head, however, the velocity be- 
ing less in a two-inch pipe, the volume delivered 
varies about as the square root of the fifth power. 
Thus one four-inch pipe is actually equal to 5.7 
two-inch pipes. 

Eixample: With the same head, how many 
two-inch pipesi will it take to equal one four-inch 
pipe? 

Solution : 
25 = 2 X 2 X 2 X 2 X 2 = 32 and the i/32 = 5.7 nearly. 

In other words, the decrease in loss by friction 
in the four-inch pipe, in comparison with the two- 
inch pipes, is equal to 1.7 two-inch pipes over the 
actual square of their respective areas. 

Water boils or takes the form of vapor or steam 
at 212 degrees Fahrenheit, at a mean pressure of 
the sea level, or 14.696 pounds per square inch. 
Water freezes, or assumes a solid form, that of 
ice, at 32 degrees Fahrenheit, at the ordinary at- 



234 PROPERTIES OF WATER 

mospheric pressure, and ice melts at the same 
temperature. The point of maximum density is 
reached at 39.2 Fahrenheit, that is, water at that 
temperature occupies its smallest possible volume. 
If cooled further, it expands until it solidifies, and 
if heated, it expands. 

Hardness of water is indicated by the easy man- 
ner with which it will form a lather with soap, 
the degree of hardness being based on the pres- 
ence and amount of lime and magnesia. The more 
lime and magnesia in a sample of water, the more 
soap a given volume of water will decompose. 
The standard soap measurement is the quantity 
required to precipitate or neutralize one grain 
of carbonate of lime. It is commonly recommended 
that one gallon of pure, distilled water takes one 
soap measure to produce a lather, and, therefore, 
one is deducted from the total amount of soap 
measurements found to be necessary to produce a 
lather in a gallon of water, and in reporting the 
number of soap measurements or degrees of hard- 
ness of the water sample. 

The impurities which occur in waters are of two 
kinds, mechanical and physical, dirt, leaves, in- 
sects, etc., are mechanical and can be removed 
by filtration. It is said that these impurities are 
held in suspension. 

Solutions of minerals, poisons and the like are 
physical and are designated as those held in solu- 
tion. 



PROPERTIES OF WATER 235 

Freshening water to render it palatable is ac- 
complished by aeration, that is, by exposing water 
to the action of the air, by passing air through it 
or raising it to an elevation built for that purpose, 
protected from dust and other impurities of the 
air, if the water is to be used for drinking pur- 
poses, and allowing it to run down an incline, 
which is slatted or barred, so as to break it up 
into small particles, and allow it to become sat- 
urated with air. 

This process, however, is of no practical use 
for actual purification. 



USEFUL INFORMATION. 

One heaped bushel of anthracite coal weighs 
from 75 to 80 lbs. 

One heaped bushel of bituminous coal weighs 
from 70 to 75 lbs. 

One bushel of coke weighs 32 lbs. 

Water, gas and steam pipes are measured on 
the inside. 

One cubic inch of water evaporated at atmos- 
pheric pressure makes 1 cubic foot of steam. 

A heat unit known as a British Thermal Unit 
raises the temperature of 1 pound of water 1 de- 
gree Fahrenheit. 

For low pressure heating purposes, from 3 to 8 
pounds of coal per hour is considered economical 
consumption, for each square foot of grate sur- 
face in a boiler, dependent upon conditions. 

A horse power is estimated equal to 75 to 100 
square feet of direct radiation. A horse power is 
also estimated as 15 square feet of heating surface 
in a standard tubular boiler. 

Water boils in a, vacuum at 98 degrees Fahren- 
heit. 

A cubic foot of water weighs 621/2 pounds, it 
contains 1,728 cubic inches or 7% gallons. Water 
expands in boiling about one-twentieth of its bulk. 

236 



USEFUL INFORMATION 237 

In turning into steam water expands 1,700 its 
bulk, approximately 1 cubic inch of water will 
produce 1 cubic foot of steam. 

One pound of air contains 13.82 cubic feet. 

It requires 1% Britisli Tliermal Units to raise 
one cubic foot of air from zero to 70 degrees Fah- 
renheit. 

At atmospheric pressure 966 heat units are re- 
quired to evaporate one pound of water into 
steam. 

A i^ound of anthracite coal contains 14,500 heat 
uits. 

One horsepower is equivalent to 42.75 heat units 
per minute. 

One horsepower is required to raise 33,000 
pounds one foot high in one minute. 

To produce one horsepower requires the evapo- 
ration of 2.66 pounds of water. 

One ton of anthracite coal contains about 40 
cubic feet. 

One bushel of anthracite coal weighs about 86 
pounds. 

Heated air and water rise because their parti- 
cles are more expanded, and therefore lighter than 
the colder particles. 

A vacuum is a portion of space from which the 
air has been entirely exhausted. 

Evaporation is the slow passage of a liquid into 
the form of vapor. 

Increase of temperature, increased exposure of 



238 USEFUL INFORMATION 

surface, and the passage oj. air currents over the 
surface, cause increased evaporation. 

Condensation is the passage of a vapor into the 
liquid state, and is the reverse of evaporation. 

Pressure exerted upon a liquid is transmitted 
undiminished in all directions, and a,cts with the 
same force on all surfaces, and at right angles to 
those surfaces. 

The pressure at each level of a liquid is propor- 
tional to its depth. 

With different liquids and the same depth, pres- 
sure is proportional to the density of the liquid. 

The pressure is the same at all points on any 
given level of a liquid. 

The pressure of the upper layers of a body of 
liquid on the lower layers causes the latter to ex- 
ert an equal reactive upward force. This force is 
called buoyancy. 

Friction does not depend in the least on the 
pressure of the liquid upon the surface over which 
it is flowing. 

Friction is proportional to the area of the sur- 
face. 

At a low velocity friction increases with the ve- 
locity of the liquid. 

Friction increases with the roughness of thv3 

surface. 

Friction increases with the density of the liquid. 

Friction is greater comparatively, in small 
pipes, for a greater proportion of the water comes 



USEFUL INFORMATION 239 

in contact with the sides of the pipe than in the 
case of the large pipe. For this reason mains on 
heating apparatus should be generous in size. 

Air is extremely compressible, while water is 
almost incompressible. 

Water is composed of two parts of hydrogen, 
and one part of oxygen. 

Water will absorb gases, and to the greatest ex- 
tent when the pressure of the gas upon the water 
is greatest, and when the temperature is the low- 
est, for the elastic force of gas is then less. 

Air is composed of about one^fifth oxygen and 
four-fifths nitrogen, with a, small amount of car- 
bonic acid gas. 

To' reduce Centigrade temperatures to Fahren- 
heit, multiply the Centigrade degrees by 9, divide 
the result by 5, and add 32. 

To reduce Fahrenheit temperature to Centi- 
grade, subtract 32 from the Fahrenheit degrees, 
multiply by 5 and divide by 9. 

To find the area of a required pipe, when the 
volume and velocity of the water are given, mul- 
tiply the number of cubic feet of water by 144 and 
divide this amount by the velocity in feet per 
minute. 

Water boils in an open vessel (atmospheric 
pressure at sea level) at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. 

Water expands in heating from 39 to 212 de- 
grees Fahrenheit, about 4 per cent. 



240 USEFUL INFORMATION 

Water expands about one-tenth its bulk by 
freezing solid. 

Rule for findings the size of a pipe necessary 
to fill a number of smaller pipes. Suppose it is 
desired to fill from one pipe, a 2, 21/2- and 4- 
incli pipe. Draw a right angle, one arm 2 inches 
in length, the other 2V2 inches in length. From 
the extreme ends of the two arms draw a line. 
The length of this line in inches will give the 
size of pipe necessary to fill the twO' smaller 
pipes— about 3% inches. From one end of this 
last line, draw another line at right angles to it, 
4 inches in length. Now, from the end of the 
2-inch line to the end of the last line draw an- 
other line. Its length will represent the size of 
pipe necessary to fill a 2-, 2%- and 4-incli pipe. 
This may be continued as long as desired. 

Discharge of water. The amount of water dis- 
charged through a given orifice during a given 
length of time and under different heads, is as 
the square roots of the corresponding heights of 
the water in the reservoir above the surface of 
the orifice. 

Water is at its greatest density and occupies the 
least space at 39 degrees Fahrenheit. 

Water is the best known absorbent of heat, con- 
sequently a good vehicle for conveying and trans- 
mitting heat. 

A U. S. gallon of water contains 231 cul^ic inches 
and weighs 8 1/3 pounds. 



USEFUL INFORMATION 241 

A column of water 27.67 inches higli has a pres- 
sure of 1 pound to th€5 square inch at the bottom. 

Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its 
capacity four times. 

A hot water boiler will consume from 3 to 8 
pounds of coal per hour per square foot of grate, 
the difference depending upon conditions of draft, 
fuel, system and management. 

A cubic foot of anthracite coal averages 50 
pounds. A cubic foot of bituminous coal weighs 
40 pounds. 

"Weights. 

One cubic inch of water 

weighs . 036 pounds 

One U. S. gallon weighs. . . 8.33 

One Imperial gallon ^ ^ ... 10 . 00 

One U. S. gallon equals. .. .231.00 cubic inches 

One Imperial gallon '' ... 277 . 274 '' '' 

One cubic foot of water 

equals 7.48 U. F. gallons 

Liquid Measure. 

4 Gills make 1 Pint 4 Quarts make 1 Gallon 

2 Pints make 1 Quart 31% Gals, make 1 Barrel 

To find the area of a rectangle, multiply the 
length by the breadth. 

To find the area of triangle, multiply the base 
by one-half the perpendicular height. 



ii 



242 USEFUL INFORMATION 

To find the circumference of a circle, multiply 
the diameter by 3.1416. 

To find the area of a circle-, multiply the diam- 
eter by itself, and the result by .7854. 

To find the diameter of a circle of a given area, 
divide the area by .7854, and find the square root 
of the result. 

To find the diameter of a circle which shall have 
the same area as a given square, multiply one side 
of the square by 1.128. 

To find the number of gallons in a cylindrical 
tank, multiply the diameter in inches by itself, 
this by the height in inches, and the result by .34. 
Tof find the number of gallons in a rectangular 
tank, multiply together the length, breadth and 
height in feet, and this result by 7.4. If the di- 
mensions are in inches, multiply the product by 
.004329. To find the pressure in pounds per 
square inch, of a column of water, multiply the 
height of the column in feet by .434. 

To find the head which will produce a given 
velocity of water through a pipe of a given di- 
ameter and length: Multiply the square of the 
velocity, expressed in feet per second, by the 
length of pipe multiplied by the quotient ob- 
tained by dividing 13.9 by the diameter of the 
pipe in inches, and divide the result obtained by 
2,500. The final amount will give the head in 
feet. 

Example.— The horizontal length of pipe is 



USEFUL INFORMATION 243 

1,200 feet, and the diameter is 4 inches. What 
head must be secured to produce a flow of 3 
feet per second? 

3X3=9; 13.9^^=:3.475. 
9X1,200X3.475=37,530. 
37,530-r-2,500=15 ft. . 

To find the velocity of water flowing through 
a horizontal straight pipe of given length and 
diameter, the head of water above the center of 
the pipe being known: Multiply the head in 
feet by 2,500, and divide the result by the length 
of pipe in feet multiplied by 13.9, divided by 
the inner diameter of the pipe in inches. The 
square root of the quotient gives the velocity 
in feet per second. 

To find the head in feet, the pressure being 
known, multiply the pressure per square inch bv 
2.31. 

To find the contents of a barrel. To twice the 
square of the largest diameter, add the square of 
the smallest diameter and multiply this by the 
height, and the result by 2,618. This will give 
the cubic inches in the barrel, and this divided 
by 231 will give the number of gallons. 

To find the head in feet, the pressure being 
known, multiply the pressure per square inch by 
2.31. 

To find the lateral pressure of water upon the 
side of a tank, multiply in inches, the area of the 



244 USEFUL INFORMATION 

submerged side, by the pressure due to one-half 
the depth. 

Example— Suppose a tanlv to be 12 feet long and 
12 feet deep. Find the pressure on the side of the 
tank. 

144 X 144=20,736 square inches area of side. 

12 X .43=5.16, pressure at bottom of tank. Pres- 
sure at the top of tank is 0. Average pressure 
will then be 2.6. Therefore 20,736 x 2.6=53,914 
pounds pressure on side of tank. 

To find the number of gallons in a foot of pipe 
of any given diameter, multiply the square of di- 
ameter of the pipe in inches, by .0408. 

To find the diameter of pipe to discharge a giv- 
en volume of water per minute in cubic feet, mul- 
tiply the square of the quantity in cubic feet per 
minute by 96. This will give the diameter in 
inches. 

To find the weight of any length of lead pipe, 
when the diameter and thickness of the lead are 
known: ]\ru]tiply the square of the outer diam- 
eter in inches, by the weight of 12 cylindrical 
inches, then multiply the square of the inner 
diameter in inches by the same amount, sub- 
tracting the product of the latter from that of 
the former. The remainder multiplied by the 
length gives the desired result. 

Example. Find the weight of 1,200 feet of 
lead pipe, the outer diameter being % inch, and 
the inner diameter 9-16 inch. 



USEFUL INFORMATION 245 

The weight of 12 cylindrical inches, 1 foot 
long, 1 inch in diameter, is 3.8697 lbs. 

% X %=49-64=.765625. 

9-16 X 9-16=81-256=.316406. 

.765625 - .316406=.449219 X 3.8697 X 1,200^2,086 
lbs. 

Cleaning Rusted Iron. Place the articles to be 
cleaned in a saturated solution of chloride of tin 
and allow them to stand for a half day or more. 

When removed, wash the articles in water, then 
in ammonia. Dry quickly, rubbing them hard. 

Removing Boiler Scale. Kerosene oil will ac- 
complish this purpose, often better than specially 
prepared compounds. 

Cleaning Brass. Mix in a stone jar one part of 
nitric acid, one-half part of sulphuric acid. Dip 
the brass work into this mixture, wash it off with 
water, and dry with sawdust. If greasy, dip the 
work into a strong mixture of potash, soda, and 
water, to remove the grease, and wash it off with 
water. 

Removing Grease Stains from Marble. Mix 1% 
parts of soft soap, 3 parts of Fuller's earth and 
1% parts of potash, with boiling water. Cover the 
grease spots with this mixture, and allow it to 
stand a few hours. 

Strong Cement. Melt over a slow fire, equal 
parts of rubber and pitch. When wishing to ap- 
ply the cement, melt and spread it on a strip of 
strong cotton cloth. 



246 USEFUL INFORMATION 

Cementing Iron and Stone. Mix 10 parts of fine 
iron filings, 30 parts of plaster of Paris, and one- 
half parts of sal ammoniac, with weak vinegar. 
Work this mixture into a paste, and apply quick- 

Cement for Steam Boilers. Four parts of red 
or white lead mixed in oil, and 3 parts of iron bor- 
ings, make a good soft cement for this purpose. 

Cement for Leaky Boilers. Mix 1 part of pow- 
dered litharge, 1 part of fine sand, and one-half 
part of slacked lime with linseed oil, and apply 
quickly as possible. 

To keep plaster of Paris from setting too 
quickly. Sift the plaster into the water, allow- 
ing it to soak up the water without stirring, 
which would admit the air, and cause the plaster 
to set very quickly. If it is desired to keep the 
plaster soft for a much longer period, as is nec- 
essary for some kinds of work, add to every 
quart of water one-half teaspoonful of common 
cooking soda. This will gain all the time that is 
needed. 

To keep paste from spoiling. Add a few drops 
of oil of clove. 

To make a cement that will hold when all 
others fail. Melt over a slow fire equal parts of 
rubber and pitch. When wishing to use it, 
melt and spread it on a strip of strong cotton 
cloth. 

Bath for cleaning sheet copper that is to be 



USEFUL INFORMATION 247 

tinned. Pour into water sulphuric acid, until 
the temperature rises to about blood heat, when 
it will be about right for pickling purposes. 

Making Tight Steam Joints. With white lead 
ground in oil mix as much manganese as possible, 
with a small amount of litharge. Dust the board 
with red lead, and knead this mass by hand into a 
small roll, which is then laid on the plate, oiled 
with linseed oil. It can then be screwed into 
place. 

Substitute for Fire Clay. Mix common earth 
with weak salt water. 

Rust Joint Cement. Mix 5 pounds of iron fil- 
ings, 1 ounce of sal ammoniac, and 1 ounce of sul- 
phur, and thin the mixture with water. 

To tin sheet copper after it has been well 
cleaned. Take it from the bath. If there are 
any spots which the acid has failed to remove, 
scour with salt and sand. Then over a light 
charcoal fire heat it, touching it with tin or sol- 
der, and wipe from one end of the sheet to the 
other with a handful of flax, only going so fast 
as it is thoroughly tinned. If the tinning shows 
a yellowish color, it shows there is too much 
heat, which is the greatest danger, as tinning 
should be done with as little heat as is neces- 
sary to make the metal flow. When this is dene, 
rinse off in clean water and dry in sawdust. 

To give copper a red appearance as seen on 
bath boilers. After the copper has been cleaned, 



248 USEFUL INFORMATION 

rub on red chalk and hammer it in with a plan- 
ishing hammer. 

To tin soldering copper with sal-ammoniac. 
It will be found very handy to have a stick of 
sal-ammoniac in the kit for tinning purposes. 
After filing the heated copper bright, touch the 
copper with the sal-ammoniac and afterward 
with a stick of solder. The solder will at once 
flow over the entire surface. In this there is but 
one danger, the too great heating of the copper, 
in which case the burned sal-ammoniac will form 
a hard crust over the surface. Tin with as little 
heat as possible. Sal-ammoniac will be found of 
great value in keeping the soldering copper in 
shape by frequently rubbing the tinned point 
with it. 

To Keep Soldering Coppers in Order While 
Soldering with Acid. In a pint of water dis- 
solve a piece of sal-ammoniac about the size of 
a walnut. Whenever the copper is taken from 
the fire, dip the point into the liquid, and the 
zinc taken from the acid will run to the point of 
the copper and can then be shaken off, leaving 
the copper bright. 

TESTS FOR PURE WATER. 

Color. Fill a long clean bottle of colorless 
glass with the water. Look through it at some 
blank object. It should look colorless and free 



USEFUL INFORMATION 249 

from suspended matter. A muddy or turbid 
appearance indicates soluble organic matter or 
solid matter in suspension. 

Odor. Fill the bottle half full, cork it and 
leave it in a warm place for a few liours. If, 
when uncorked, it has a smell the least repul- 
sive, it should be rejected for domestic use. 

Taste. If water at any time, even after heat- 
ing, has a repulsive or disagreeable taste, it 
should be rejected. A simple, semi-chemical 
test is to fill a clean pint bottle three-fourths full 
of water, add a half teaspoonful of clean granu- 
lated or crushed loaf sugar, stop the bottle with 
glass or a clean cork, and let it stand in the 
light, in a moderately warm room, for forty- 
eight hours. If the water becomes cloudy, or 
milky, it is unfit for domestic use. 



250 



TABLES 



Table Showing Pressure of Water at Different 
Elevations. 



Feet Head. 


Equals 
Pressure 

per 

Square 

Inch. 


Feet Head. 


Equals 

Pressure 

per 

Square 

Inch. 


Feet Head. 


Equals 
Pressure 

per 

Square 

Inch. 


1 


.43 


130 


56.31 


255 


110.46 


5 


2.16 


135 


58.48 


260 


112.62 


10 


4.33 


140 


60.64 


265 


114.79 


15 


6.49 


145 


62.81 


270 


116.96 


20 


8.66 


150 


64.97 


275 


119.12 


25 


10.82 


155 


67.14 


280 


121.29 


80 


12.99 


160 


69.31 


285 


123.45 


35 


15.16 


165 


71.47 


290 


125.62 


40 


17.32 


170 


73.64 


295 


127.78 


45 


19.49 


175 


75.80 


300 


129.95 


50 


21.65 


180 


77.97 


310 


134.28 


55 


23.82 


185 


80.14 


320 


138.62 


60 


25.99 


190 


82.30 


330 


142.95 


65 


28.15 


195 


84.47 


340 


147.28 


70 


30.32 


200 


86.63 


350 


151.61 


75 


32.48 


205 


88.80 


360 


155.94 


80 


34.65 


210 


90.96 


370 


160.27 


85 


36.82 


215 


93.14 


380 


164.61 


90 


38.98 


220 


95.30 


390 


168.94 


95' 


41.15 


225 


97.49 


400 


173.27 


100 


43.31 


230 


99.63 


500 


216.58 


105 


45.48 


235 


101.79 


600 


259.90 


110 


47.64 


240 


103.96 


700 


303.22 


115 


49.81 


245 


106.13 


800 


346.54 


120 


51.98 


250 


. 108.29 


900 


389.86 


125 


54.15 






1000 


433.18 



TABLES 



251 







X3 

o 

a 


^3 

O 


CO 


o 


OOO 


o 


o 


© 


o 


























1— I 






















(N 






















rH 


. 










o 


<M 


lO 






,^ 




CO 


tH 


Tf IC 


«© 


r-^ 


y-\ 


r-i 
























X5 

o 

o 


o 


00 


o 


o 


00 o 


O 


o 


o 


►^ 




)— 1 


















^ 


0) 


i-H 
















cq 


^ 


0) 


iH 


02 


(M 


CO 


rt< 


Tj^ lO 


t^ 


05 


r-i 


o 


s 






















S3 

O 


Ol o 


CO 


O 


o 


o 


o 


o 


1^ 


'O 


x: 




iH 














^ 


cj 


o 


















Pq 


0) 

1^ 


1— 1 


















o 


o 

o 
o 


tH 




th cq 


(M 


CO 


'<1< 


IC 


CO 


1> 


J3 


o 


TtH QO 


(M O 
rH 


Tt< CO 


O 00 


o 


00 


o 


w 


^ 


-H 






















CO 




tH tH 


rH <M 


(M 01 


CO CO 


rt< 


^ 


lO 


> 


X! 
be 






































o 


"S 


J3 


o 


rfH QO 


(M 


(M O 


^ CO 


cq o 


^ 00 


o 


<^ 


S3 


a 
t— 1 






i-t 


tH 




T-i 






o 


op 


03 


tH iH 


iH 


iH (M 


(M (M 


<M CO 


CO CO 


rt< 


^ 




















H 


5 


^ 


o 


oq 


'^ o 


Tt< 


00 oq 


O 


00 


O 


o 
o 


a 
s 


a 

h- 1 




tH 


1-i 




rH 








P^ 






o 


O iH 


rH 


i-\ y-i 


oq 


cq 


CO 


tf 

H 








































PM 




X3 


o 


00 


O Csl 


Ol 


O 


'^ 


Ttl 00 


00 


H 










tH iH 


rH 










Oh 
1— 1 




1— 1 




















op 


m 
^ 


o 


o o 


O 


rH 


rH 


rH rH 


r-i 


E^ 


















O 


p." 


. 
















H 


a 


^3 
















l-H 




i=l 


lO 


o 


lO 


00 


O 


lO 


o 


O 


iH 


<M 


oq 


CO 


LO 


t^ 


o 

rH 


^ 


Pmco 




















M-l 




















0^-3 
























o 


o 


o 


lO 


o 


o 


O 






CO 


Tt^ 


lO 


t^ 


o 


lO 


o 














rH 


^ 


cq 



252 



TABLES 



Table of Quantitity op Water Delivered by Service 


Pipes of Various Sizes Under Various Pressures. 


Proportion of Head of Water (H) to Length of Pipe (L), 




Gallons Per Minute. 








h4 


h4 


y^ 


h4 


^ 


hi 


^ 




iH 


Oi 


GO 


t^ 


CO 


lO 


rtH 


CO 


1^ 


II 


II 


II 


II 


II 


il 


II 


II 


1/ 

/2 


W 


w 


w 


M 


15.3 


w 


w 


w 


19.8 


18.7 


17.7 


16.5 


14.0 


12.5 


10.8 


% 


34.5 


32.7 


30.1 


28.9 


26.5 


24.4 


21.5 


18.9 


•V 


54.4 


51.7 


48.7 


45.6 


42.2 


38.5 


34.4 


29.8 


1 


111.8 


106.0 


100.0 


93.5 


86.6 


79.0 


70.7 


61.2 


IM 


195.2 


185.2 


174.6 


163.3 


151.2 


138.0 


123.4 


106.9 


iX 


308.0 


292.1 


275.4 


257.6 


238.5 


217.7 


194.8 


168.7 


2 


632.2 


599.7 


566.4 


538.9 


488.1 


447.0 


399.8 


346.3 


2% 


1104.0 1048.0 


987.8 


924.0 


855.4 


780.9 


698.5 


604.9 


3 


1745.01651.0 


1560.0 


1460.0 


1351.0 


1234.01103.0 


955.5 


4 


3581.0:3397.0 


3203.0 


2996.0 


2774.0 


2532.02265.0 


1962.0 


5 


6247.015928.0 


5588.0 


5227.0 


4839.0 


4417.0 3951.0 


3406.0 


6 


9855.09349.0 


8814.0 


8245.0 


7633.0 


6968.0,6233.0 


5391.0 


'c 'f 




►4 


^ 


h4 












h4 


m^ 


^N 


r-k 


J 


^ 


^ 


^' 


■2 >i 

(1) K 


cq 


iH 


tH 


1— 1 


r-i 


«:■* 


.-N 


r-l-t 


ii 


II 


II 


II 


II 


II 


II 


II 


II 


5S 
1/ 

/2 


w 


w 


w 


W 


w 


w 


a 


w 


8.8 


8.3 


7.7 


7.0 


6.3 


5.4 


4.4 


3.1 


5/ 
/8 


15.4 


14.4 


13.4 


12.2 


10.9 


9.5 


7.7 


5.5 




. 24.3 


22.8 


21.1 


19.3 


17.2 


14.9 


12.2 


8.6 


1 


50.0 


46.8 


43.2 


39.5 


35.3 


30.6 


25.0 


17.7 


IX 


87.3 


81.6 


75.6 


69.0 


61.7 


53.5 


43.7 


30.9 


iX 


137.7 


128.8 


119.3 


108.9 


97.4 


84.3 


68.7 


48.7 


2 


282.7 


264.4 


248.8 


223.5 


199.9 


173.1 


141.4 


100.0 


2X 


493.9 


482.0 


427.7 


390.4 


349.2 


302.4 


246.9 


174.6 


3 


780.2 


728.8 


674.8 


615-9 


555.5 


477.1 


390.1 


275.8 


4 


1602.0 1496.0 


1385.0 


1264.0 


1133.0 


979.3 


800.8 


566.2 


5 


2791.02613.0 


2420.0 


2209.0 


1976.0 


1711.0 


1394.0 


987.7 


6 


4407.04122.0 


3817.0 


3484.0 


3116.0 


2693.0 2204.0 


1558.0 



TABLES 



253 



Capacity 


OF Drain 


Pipe Under 


Different Amounts | 






OF Fall. 








Gallons per Minute. 




Size of Pipe. 


1-2 inch fall 
per 100 feet. 


3 inch fall 
per 100 feet. 


6 inch fall 
per 100 feet. 


9 inch fall 
per 100 feet. 


3 In. 


21 


30 


42 


52 


4 '* 


36 


52 


76 


92 


6 " 


84 


120 


169 


206 


9 " 


232 


330 


470 


570 


12 '' 


470 


680 


960 


1160 


15 " 


830 


1180 


1680 


2040 


18 ** 


1300 


1850 


2630 


3200 


20 '' 


1760 


2450 


3450 


4180 


Size of Pipe. 


12 inch fall 
per 100 feet. 


18 inch fall 
per 100 feet. 


24 inch fall 
per 100 feet. 


36 inch fall 
per 100 feet. 


3 In. 


60 


74 


85 


104 


4 " 


108 


132 


148 


184 


6 " 


240 


294 


338 


414 


9 " 


660 


810 


930 


1140 


12 " 


1360 


1670 


1920 


2350 


15 '' 


2370 


2920 


3340 


4100 


18 " 


3740 


4600 


5270 


6470 


20 " 


4860 


5980 


6850 


8410 j 



254 



TABLES 



Dimensions of Wrought-Iron Pipe. 


Nominal 

Inside 
Diameter. 


Actual 

Outside 

Diameter 

in Inches. 


Actual 

Inside 

Diameter 

in Inches. 


Thickness 
of Metal 
in Inches. 


Threads 
per Inch. 


Length of 

Full 

Thread 

in Inches. 


1/ 

/8 


.405 


.270 


.068 


27 


.19 


1/ 
/4 


.540 


.364 


.085 


18 


.29 


3/ 


.675 


.493 


.091 


18 


.30 


1/ 

/2 


.840 


.622 


.109 


14 


.39 


3/ 
/A 


1.050 


.824 


.113 


14 


.40 


1 


1.315 


1.048 


.134 


iiX 


.51 


IX 


1.660 


1.380 


.140 


iiX 


.54 


IX 


1.900 


1.610 


.145 


iiX 


.55 


2 


2.375 


2.067 


.154 


11% 


.58 


2X 


2.875 


2.468 


.204 


8 


.89 


3 


3.500 


3.067 


.217 


8 


.95 


3X 


4.000 


3.548 


.226 


8 


1.00 


4 


4.500 


4.026 


.237 


8 


1.05 


4X 


5.000 


4.508 


.246 


8 


1.10 


5 


5.563 


5.045 


.259 


8 


1.16 


6 


6.625 


6.065 


.280 


8 


1.26 


7 


7.625 


7.023 


.301 


8' 


1.36 


8 


8.625 


7.981 


.322 


8 


1.46 


9 


9.625 


8.937 


.344 


8 


1.57 


10 


10.750 


10.018 


.366 


8 


1.68 


11 


11.75 


11.000 


.375 


8 


1.78 


12 


12.75 


12.000 


.375 


8 


1.88 


13 


14. 


13.25 


.375 


8 


2.09 


14 


15. 


14.25 


.375 


8 


2.10 


15 


16. 


15.25 


.375 


8 


2.20 



butt welded and 



Taper of the thread is % inch to one foot. 

Pipe from % inch to 1 inch inclusive is 
tested to 300 pounds per square inch. 

Pipe iX inch and larger is lap welded and tested to 500 
pounds per square inch. 



TABLES 



255 





Decimal Parts of an 


Inch. 




1-64 


.01563 


11-32 


.34375 


43-64 


.67188 


1-32 


.03125 


23-64 


.35938 


11-16 


.6875 


3-64 


.04688 


3-8 


.375 






1-16 


.0625 






45-64 


.70313 






25-64 


.39063 


23-32 


.71875 


5-64 


.07813 


13-32 


.40625 


47-64 


.73438 


3-32 


.09375 


27-64 


.42188 


3-4 


.75 


7-64 


.10938 


7-16 


.4375 






1-8 


.125 






49-64 


.76563 






29-64 


.45313 


25-32 


.78125 


9-64 


,14063 


15-32 


.46875 


51-64 


.79688 


5-32 


.15625 


31-64 


.48438 


13-16 


.8125 


11-64 


.17188 


1-2 


.5 






3-16 


.1875 






53-64 


.82813 






33-64 


.51563 


27-32 


.84375 


13-64 


.20313 


17-32 


.53125 


55-64 


.85938 


7-32 


.21875 


35-64 


.54688 


7-8 


.875 


15-64 


.23438 


9-16 


.5625 






1-4 


.25 






57-64 


.89063 






37-64 


.57813 


29-32 


.90625 


17-64 


.26563 


19-32 


.59375 


59-64 


.92188 


9-32 


.28125 


39-64 


.60938 


15-16 


.9375 


19-64 


.29688 


5-8 


.625 






5-16 


.3125 






61-64 


.95313 






41-64 


.64063 


31-32 


.96875 


21-64 


.32813 


21-32 


.65625 


63-64 


.97438 



Melting Points of Alloys of Tin 


', Lead, 


AND Bismuth, j 


Tin. 


Lead. Bismuth. 


Melting 
Point in 
Degrees 
Fahren- 
heit. 


Tin. 


Lead. 


Bismuth. 


Melting 
Point in 
Degrees 
Fahren- 
heit, 


2 


3 


5 


199 


4 


1 




372 


1 


1 


4 


201 


5 


1 




381 


3 


2 


5 


212 


2 


1 




385 


4 


1 


5 


246 


3 




1 


392 


1 




1 


286 


1 


1 




466 


2 




1 


334 


1 


3 




552 


3 


1 




367 











256 



TABLES 



Weight of Twelve Inches Square of Various Metals. 


a 
o 


O tH 


a 
o 

u 

1— ( 

■1-3 




eg 


CO 


a> 
o. 
p. 
o 
o 




6 
a 


Ol 


1 

TIT 


2.50 


2.34 


2.56 


2.75 


2.69 


2.87 


2.37 


2.25 


3.68 


% 


5.00 


4.69 


5.12 


5.50 


5.38 


5.75 


4.75 


4.50 


7.37 


3 
TIT 


7.50 


7.03 


7.68 


8.25 


8.07 


8.62 


7.12 


6.75 


11.05 


% 


10.00 


9.38 


10.25 


11.00 


10.75 


11.50 


9.50 


9.00 


14.75 


5 
T6" 


12.50 


11.72 


12.81 


13.75 


13.45 


14.37 


11.87 


11.25 


18.42 


3/ 
/8 


15.00 


14.06 


15.36 


16.50 


16.14 


17.24 


14.24 


13.50 


22.10 


7 


17.50 


16,41 


17.93 


19.25 


18.82 


20.12 


16.17 


15.75 


25.80 


y^ 


20.90 


18.75 


20.50 


22.00 


21.50 


23.00 


19.00 


18.00 


29.50 


9 
TIT 


22.50 


21.10 


23.06 


24.75 


24.20 


25.87 


21.37 


20.25 


33.17 


5/ 
/8 


25.00 


23.44 


25.62 


27.50 


26.90 


28.74 


23.74 


22.50 


36.84 


1 1 


27.50 


25.79 


28.18 


30.25 


29.58 


31.62 


26.12 


24.75 


40.54 


3/ 
/4 


30.00 


28.12 


30.72 


33.00 


32.28 


34.48 


28.48 


27.00 


44.20 


1 3 

Tfi 


32.50 


30.48 


33.28 


35.75 


34.95 


37.37 


30.87 


29.25 


47.92 


% 


35.00 


32.82 


35.86 


38.50 


37.64 


40.24 


32.34 


31.50 


51.60 


1 5 


37.50 


35.16 


38.43 


41.25 


40.32 


43.12 


35.61 


33.75 


55.36 


1 


40.00 


37.50 


41.00 


44.00 


43.00 


46.00 


38.00 


36.00 


59.00 



Weight of Metals. To Find Weight in Pounds. 

Aluminium cubic inches X 0.094 

Brass " ** X 0.31 

Copper *' ** X 0.32 

Cast-iron *' " X 0.26 

Wrought-Iron '* *' X 0.28 

Lead " " X 0.41 

Mercury *' *' X 0.49 

Nickel " " X 0.31 

Tin '' ** X 0.26 

Zinc " " X 0.26 



TABLES 



237 



Weight of Copper Pipes Per Foot. 


Bore in 
Inches. 


Thickness of Metal in Parts of an Inch. j 


1 


X 


3 


1/ 
/4 


5 
T15" 


3/ 




pounds. 


pounds. 


pounds. 


pounds. 


pounds. 


pounds. 


% 


0.426 


0.946 


1.561 


2.270 


3.075 


3.973 


% 


0.520 


1.185 


1.845 


2.649 


3.547 


4.540 


/4 


0.615 


1.324 


2.129 


3.027 


4.020 


5.108 




0.709 


1.514 


2.412 


3.425 


4.493 


5.676 


1 


0.804 


1.703 


2.696 


3.784 


4.966 


6.243 


IX 


0.993 


2.081 


3.263 


4.540 


5.712 


7.378 


IX 


1.182 


2.459 


3.831 


5.297 


6.857 


8.514 


1% 


1.372 


2.838 


4.388 


6.055 


7.805 


9.646 


2 


1.560 


3.217 


4.967 


6.808 


8.748 


10.783 


2X 


1.750 


3.591 


5.531 


7.566 


9.694 


11.918 


2X 


1.940 


3.975 


6.103 


8.327 


10.643 


13.066 


2% 


2.128 


4.352 


6.668 


9.081 


11.590 


14.190 


3 


2.316 


4.729 


7.238 


9.737 


12.534 


15.325 


Weight of Brass Pipes Pejr Foot. 


Bore in 
Inches. 


Thickness in Parts of an Inch. 








1 




1 


■X 


3 




.5 3/ 


7 
T1B" 




pounds 


pounds 


pounds. 


pounds. 


pounds pounds 


pounds. 


X 


0.22 


0.53 


0.94 


1.43 


2.01 


2.68 


3.44 


X 


0.40 


0.89 


1.47 


2.15 


2.91 


3.75 


4.70 


% 


0.58 


1.25 


2.01 


2.86 


3.80 


4.83 


5.95 


1 


0.76 


1.61 


2.55 


3.58 


4.70 


5.92 


7.25 


iX 


0.94 


1.96 


3.09 


4.31 


5.64 


6.98 


9.46 


IX 


1.12 


2.34 


3.67 


5.01 


6.49 


8.05 


9.71 


iX 


1.33 


2.66 


4.14 


5.70 


7.36 


9.11 


10.94 


2 


1.48 


3.04 


4.69 


6.44 


8.27 


10.20 


12.21 


2X 


1.65 


3.40 


5.23 


7.16 


9.17 


11.27 


13.46 


2X 


1.83 


3.75 


5.77 


7.87 


10.06 


12.35 


14.72 


2X. 


2.01 


4.11 


6.31 


8.59 


10.96 


]3.42 


15.97 


3 


2.19 


4.47 


6.84 


9.31 


11.85 


14.69 


17.42 



258 



TABLES 



Diameters, Circumferences, . 


A.REAS, Squares, 1 






AND 


Cubes. 






Diameter 


Circum- 


Area in 


Area in 


Square, 


Cube, 


in Inches. 


ference in 
Inches. 


Square 
Inches. 


Square 
Feet. 


in Inches. 


in Inches. 


X 


.3927 


.0122 




.0156 


.00195 


1/ 
TA 


.7854 


.0490 




.0625 


.01563 


/9. 


1.1781 


.1104 




.1406 


.05273 


/2 


1.5708 


1963 




.25 


.125 


% 


1.9635 


.3068 




.3906 


.24414 


% 


2.3562 


.4417 




.5625 


.42138 


% 


2.7489 


.6013 




.7656 


.66992 


1 


3.1416 


.7854 




1. 


1. 


1% 


3.5343 


• .9940 


.0069 


1.2656 


1.42383 


\% 


3.9270 


1.2271 


.0084 


1.5625 


1.95313 


1% 


4.3197 


1.4848 


.0102 


1.8906 


2.59961 


iX 


4.7124 


1.7671 


.0122 


2.25 


3.375 


1% 


5.1051 


2.0739 


.0143 


2.6406 


4.291 


1^ 


5.4978 


2.4052 


.0166 


3.0265 


5.3593 


IX 


5.8905 


2.7611 


.0191 


3.5156 


6.5918 


2 


6.2832 


3.1416 


.0225 


4. 


8. 


2% 


6.6759 


3.5465 


.0245 


4.5156 


9.5957 


2X 


7.0686 


3.9760 


.0275 


5.0625 


11.3906 


2% 


7.4613 


4.4302 


.0307 


5.6406 


13.3965 


2X 


7.8540 


4.9087 


.0340 


6.25 


15.625 


2% 


8.2467 


5.4119 


.0375 


6.8906 


18.0879 


2% 


8.6394 


5.9395 


.0411 


7.5625 


20.7969 


2% 


9.0321 


6.4918 


.0450 


8.2656 


23.7637 


3 


9.4248 


7.0686 


.0490 


9. 


27. 


3% 


9.8175 


7.6699 


.0531 


9.7656 


30.5176 


3X 


10.210 


8.2957 


.0575 


10.5625 


34.3281 


3% 


10.602 


8.9462 


.0620 


11.3906 


38.4434 


3% 


10.995 


9.6211 


.0668 


12.25 


42.875 


3X 


11.388 


10.320 


.0730 


13.1406 


47.634 


3% 


11.781 


11.044 


.0767 


14.0625 


52.734 


3X 


12.173 


11.793 


.0818 


15.0156 


58.185 


4 


12.566 


12.566 


.0879 


16. 


64. 



TABLES 



259 



Diameters, Circumferences, Areas, Squares, 






AND 


Cubes. 






Diameter 
in Inches. 


Circum- 
ference in 
Inches. 


Area in 
Square 
Inches. 


Area in 

Square 

Feet. 


Square, 
in Inches. 


Cube, 
in Inches. 


4% 


12.959 


13.364 


.0935 


17.0156 


70.1895 


4K 


13.351 


14.186 


.0993 


18.0625 


76.7656 


4% 


13.744 


15.033 


.1052 


19.1406 


83.7402 


4X 


14.137 


15.904 


.1113 


20.25 


91.125 


4% 


14.529 


16.800 


.1176 


21.3906 


98.9316 


4% 


14.922 


17.720 


.1240 


22.5625 


107.1719 


4% 


15.315 


18.665 


.1306 


23.7656 


115.8574 


5 


15.708 


19.635 


.1374 


25. 


125. 


5% 


16.100 


20.629 


.1444 


26.2656 


134.6113 


5X 


16.493 


21.647 


.1515 


27.5625 


144.7031 


5% 


16.886 


22.690 


.1588 


28.8906 


155.2871 


5X 


17.278 


23.758 


.1663 


30.25 


166.375 


5% 


17.671 


24.850 


.1739 


31.6406 


177.9785 


5% 


18.064 


25.967 


.1817 


33.0625 


190.1094 


5% 


18.457 


27.108 


.1897 


34.5186 


202.7793 


6. 


18.849 


28.274 


.1979 


36. 


216. 


6% 


19.242 


29.464 


.2062 


37.5156 


229.7832 


6X. 


19.635 


30.679 


.2147 


39.0625 


244.1406 


6% 


20.027 


31.919 


.2234 


40.6406 


259.084 


6X 


20.420 


33.183 


.2322 


42.25 


274.625 


6>^ 


20.813 


34.471 


.2412 


43.8906 


290.7754 


6% 


21.205 


35.784 


.2504 


45.5625 


307.5469 


6% 


21.598 


37.122 


.2598 


47.2656 


324.9512 


7 


21.991 


38.484 


.2693 


49. 


343. 


7% 


22.383 


39.871 


.2791 


50.7656 


361.7051 


7>i 


22.776 


41.282 


.2889 


52.5625 


381.0781 


7% 


23.169 


42.718 


.2990 


54.3906 


401.1309 


7X 


23.562 


44.178 


.3092 


56.25 


421.879 


7>^' 


23.954 


45.663 


.3196 


58.1406 


443.3223 


7% 


24.347 


47.173 


.3299 


60.0625 


465.4844 


7% 


24.740 


48.707 


.3409 


62.0156 


488.3730 


8 


25.132- 


50.265 


.3518 


64. 


512. 



Diameters, Circumferences, Areas, Squares, 
AND Cubes. 



Diameter 
in Inches. 


Circum- 
ference in 
Inches. 


Area in 
Square 
Inches. 


Area in 

Square 

Feet. 


Square, 
in Inches. 


Cube, 
in Inches. 


SX 


25.515 


51.848 


.3629 


66.0156 


536.3770 


8X 


25.918 


53.456 


.3741 


68.0625 


561.5156 


8% 


26.310 


55.088 


.3856 


70.1406 


587.4277 


8X 


26.703 


56.745 


.3972 


72.25 


614.125 


8% 


27.096 


58.426 


.4089 


74.3906 


641.6191 


8% 


27.489 


60.132 


.4209 


76.5625 


669.9219 


8% 


27.881 


61.862 


.4330 


78.7656 


699.0449 


9 


28.274 


63.617 


.4453 


81. 


729. 


9% 


28.667 


65.396 


.4577 


83.2656 


759.7988 


9X 


29.059 


67.200 


.4704 


85.5625 


791.4531 


9% 


29.452 


69.029 


.4832 


87.8906 


823.9746 


9X 


29.845 


70.882 


.4961 


90.25 


857.375 


9% 


30.237 


72.759 


.5093 


92.6406 


891.666 


9% 


30.630 


74.662 


.5226 


95.0625 


926.8594 


9X 


31.023 


76.588 


.5361 


97.5156 


962.0968 


10 


31.416 


78.540 


.5497 


100. 


1000. 


10% 


31.808 


80.515 


.5636 


102.5156 


1037.9707 


10% 


32.201 


82.516 


.5776 


105.0625 


1076.8906 


10% 


32.594 


84.540 


.5917 


107.6406 


1116.7715 


10% 


32.986 


86.590 


.6061 


110.25 


1157.625 


10% 


33.379 


88.664 


.6206 


112.8906 


1199.4629 


10% 


33.772 


90.762 


.6353 


115.5625 


1242.2969 


10% 


34.164 


92.885 


.6499 


118.2656 


1286.1387 


11 


34.557 


95.033 


.6652 


121. 


1331. 


11% 


34.950 


97.205 


.6804 


123.7656 


1376.8926 


iVA 


35.343 


99.402 


.6958 


126.5625 


1423.8281 


11% 


35.735 


101.623 


.7143 


129.3906 


1471.8184 


11% 


36.128 


103.869 


.7270 


132.25 


1520.875 


11% 


36.521 


106.139 


.7429 


135.1406 


1571.0098 


11% 


36.913 


108.434 


.7590 


138.0625 


1622.234 


11% 


37.306 


110.753 


.7752 


141.0155 


1674.5605 


12 


37.699 


113.097 


.7916 


144. 


1728. 



t!^bi^es 



261 



Weight and Thickness of Sheet Lead. 


Weight in Lbs. 
per Sup. Foot. 


Thickness in 
Inches. 


Weight in Lbs. 
per Sup. Foot. 


Thickness in 
Inches. 


1 


0.017 


7 


0.118 


2 


0.034 


8 


0.135 


3 


0.051 


9 


0.152 


4 


0.068 


10 


0.169 


5 


0.085 


11 


0.186 


6 


0.101 


12 


0.203 



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INDEX. 

PAGE 

House drainage 7 

Backwater traps 14 

Disposal of sewage 17 

Country water supply 22 

Rule for estimating delivery of water 23 

Compressed air system 23 

Cellar or basement drains 31 

Traps , 38 

Hot water supply 47 

Cylinder system 47 

Tank system 51 

Cylinder-tank system 54 

Hot water plumbing 57 

Plumber 's tools 69 

Drainage fittings 77 

Soil and waste pipe fittings 77 

Traps 86 

Lead traps 90 

Hopper traps 95 

Cleanouts 101 

Cesspools 103 

Sanitary plumbing 105 

The bathroom 105 

Bathtubs 106 

Sanitary plumbing for a bathtub 112 

Water closets 113 

Sanitary plumbing for a watercloset 123 

Urinals 126 

Washbowls . c 128 

1 



ji INDEX 

PAGI 

Sanitary plumbing for a wash stand 136 

Drinking fountains 136 

Sinks 13r 

Grease trap 14!: 

Laundry tubs 141 

Sanitary plumbing for a laundry tub . . . 147 

Bathroom and kitchen fittings 15C 

"Washbowl plugs 15C 

Laundry or bathtub plugs 15C 

Sink strainers 15C 

Bathtub fittings 153 

Urinal fittings 151 

Faucets 156 

Self-closing faucet 161 

Bibb and stop-cocks 167 

Boiler and water-back fittings 177 

Combination soldering fittings 177 

Combination lead pipe coupling 178 

Traps 17£ 

Counter-venting 18C 

Calking joints • 181 

Solder 18^ 

How to make solder 19^ 

Soldering fluxes o 20C 

Preparing wiped joints 20^ 

Joint- wiping 216 

Wiping horizontal joints „ 21-^ 

Wiping branch joints , 21^ 

Autogenous soldering 22( 

Properties of water 231 

Useful information 23( 

Tests for pure water . . » . ^ 24$ 



INDEX 
TABLES. 

PADS 

Table showing pressure of water at different eleva- 
tions o . . 250 

Weight of pipe per foot for a given heiid or falJ of 

water „ 251 

(Quantity of water delivered by service pipes of vari- 
ous sizes 252 

Capacity of drain pipe under different amounts of 

fall ... 253 

Dimensions of wrought iron pipe 254 

Decimal parts of an inch 255 

Melting points of alloys of tin, lead and bismuth. . . 255 

Weight of twelve inches square of various metals. . . 256 

Weight of metals — to find weight in pounds 256 

Weight of copper pipes per foot 257 

Weighi of brass pipes. per foot , 257 

Diameters, circumferences, areas, sides of equal 

squares, squares and cubes 258, 259, 260 

Weight and thickness of sheet lead. , . 261 

Plumbing Chaits. 



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No matter what your ambi- 
_— _-™__. . ^1^^ ^^ desire for knowledge 

may be, we publish books written by authorities in 
their different lines that will give you just the training and 
information that you want and need. 

Write today for this up-to-date and complete illus- 
trated catalogue and popular price list. It is free. 

FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO. 

PUBUSHERS OF SELF-EDUCATIONAL BOOKS 
1325 Michigan Avenue CHICAGO 



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i'SRSKJS' 1»ftA<.TJCAi BOOKS ARE DJi 
■ ^19lO ,TH£i 'WORLD OVER - 

V»Ja*w^^— ^**«f 




Caatcr 
tantm. 
Steam 
and (Bas 
jfittina 



By WM, DOMJiLDSOM 



A MODERN treatise on Hot Water, Steam and Furnace 
Heating, and Steam and Gas Fitting, which is in- 
tended for the use and information of the owners of build- 
ings and the mechanics who install the heating plants in 
them. It gives full and concise information with regard 
to Sieam Boilers and Water Heaters and Furnaces, Pipe 
Systems for Steam and Hot Water Plants, Radiation, Radi- 
ator Valves and connections. Systems of Radiation, Heating 
Surfaces, Pipe and Pipe Fittings, Damper Regulators, Fit- 
ters' Tools, Heating Surface of Pipes, Installing a Heating 
Plant and Specifications. Plans and Elevations of Steam 
and Hot Water Heating Plants are shown and all other sub- 
jects in the book are fully illustrated. 

256 pages, 121 illustrations, 12niOf cloth, price, $1,50 



Sold by Booksellers generally or sent postpaid to 
any address upon receipt of price by the Publishers 

FREDERICK J. DRAKE ^ CO, 

CHICAGO, U.S. A, 



U 



Concretes, Cements, 

Mortd^rs, 
Platsters 
Stviccos 




How to Make and 
How to Use Them 

By 

fred T. Hodgson 

Jtrchitect 



THIS is another of Mr. Hodgson's practical works that appeals 
directly to the workman whose business it is to make and apply 
the materials named in the title. As far as it has been possible 
to avoid chemical descriptions of limes, cements and other materials, 
and theories of no value to the workman, such has been done, and 
nothing has been admitted into the pages of the work that does not 
possess a truly practical character. 

Concretes and cements have received special attention, and the 
laiest methods of making and using cement building blocks, laying 
cement sidewalks, putting in concrete foundations, making cement 
casts and ornaments, are discussed at length. Plastering and stucco 
work receive a fair share of consideration and the best methods of 
making and using ar e described in the usual simple manner so 
characteristic ¥0^$r^ Hodgson's style. The book contains a large 
number of illustrations of tools, appliances and methods employed 
in making and applying concretes, cements, mortars, plasters and 
stucco, which will greatly assist in making it easy for the student to 
follow and understand the text 

300 pages fully illustrated. 

/2 Mo. Cloth, Price, $l.50 

Sold by Booksellers generally or sent postpaid to 
any address upon receipt of price by tiie Publishers 

Frederick J. Drake ^ Co. 



PUBLISHERS 



CHICAGO. U. S. A. 



Practical Bricklaying Self-Taught 



FOR HOME STUDY 



By FRED T. HODGSON 



This book is devoted altogether 
to brick work of all kinds, and in- 
cludes an explanation of the var- 
ious terms employed in the trade, 
with illustrations and definitions 
showing what the terms really 
mean. 

Damp courses are dealt with in 
a separate chapter in which the 
various methods of constructing 
damp courses are fully illustrated, 
described and explained. Various 
methods of forming brick pilas- 
ters, columns, quoins and pands 
are explained, illustrated and des- 
cribed. Joints in brick work are 
illustrated, described and explained in a separate chapter, 
in which the kinds of mortar to employ for various works 
are defined. Chimney breasts, flues, stacks, fire-places 
and chimneys, of all kinds are described and illustrated. 

12mo., Cloth, 180 Pages, 240 Illustrations - Price, $1.00 

SENT POSTPAID TO ANY ADDRESS IN 
THE WORLD UPON RECEIPT OF PRICE 




FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO. 



PUBLISHERS 



CHICAGO, ILL. 



Practical Stonemasonry Self-Taught 



FOR HOME STUDY 



BY FRED T. HODGSON 



This book deals with the stone 
mason's work altogether. Methods 
of building walls in rustic rubble, 
ashler square, uncovered, random 
coursed, irregular corners, snecked 
and square rubble, picked poly- 
gonal ragwork, and other styles of 
work are explained and illustrated. 
Finished stones such as window 
sills, window heads, coping, arch 
stones, key stones, and other dress- 
ings are described and illustrated. 
Stone arches and joists are des- 
cribed and illustrated, with ample 
instructions for working them. 
The book contains 180 illustra- 
tions and diagrams, and is a complete cyclopedia of prac- 
tical instructions in masonry, and must prove of inestimable 
value to the operative mason. 




12mo., Cloth : : : : Price $1.00 

13 J Pages, 180 Illustrations 



Sent postpaid to any address in 
the world upon receipt of price. 



FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO., 



PUBLISHERS 



CHICAGO, ILL. 



ftB W ^^^^ 




Sheet 
Metal 
Workers'" 
Instructor 



By 
Joseph H. Rose 



Profusely Illustrated. 

'T^HIS work consists of useful information for Sheet Metal 
* Workers in all branches of the industry, and contains 
practical rules for describing the various patterns for sheet 
iron, copper and tin work. Geometrical construction of 
plane figures. Examples oi" practical pattern drawing. 
Tools and appliances used in sheet metal work. Examples 
of practical sheet metal work. Geometrical construction 
and development of solid figures. Soldering and brazing. 
Tinning. Retinning and galvanizing. Materials used in 
sheet metal work. Useful information. Tables, etc. 

320 Pages, 240 Illustrations 
12 Mo. Clothe * # # Price, $2.00 

Sold by Bookselleis generally, or sent postpaid to 
any address upon receipt of price by the Publishers 

Frederick J. Drake ^ Co. 



PUBLISHERS 



CHICAGO. U. S. A. 



One copy del. to Cat. Div. 



ico 1/ iiii 




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